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Jan 1973

Volume 10, Issue 1, pp. 1-325


Recent Advances in the Chemical Vapor Growth of Electronic Materials

T. L. Chu and R. K. Smeltzer

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 1 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317938 (10 pages) | Cited 4 times

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The chemical vapor growth technique has been used extensively for the preparation and crystal growth of electronic materials either in the bulk form or as thin layers on substrate surfaces. Using the chemical transport technique or the reaction of gaseous compounds containing the constituents of the desired material, electronic materials with thicknesses in a wide range can be prepared at temperatures considerably below their melting points or decomposition temperatures. Furthermore, the impurity concentration and distribution in the product can be controlled to an extent not obtainable by other techniques. The recent progress in the chemical vapor growth of semiconductors, insulators, conductors, magnetic materials, and superconductors is discussed with emphasis on the epitaxial growth of semiconductors.
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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

The Growth of a GaAs–GaAlAs Superlattice

L. L. Chang, L. Esaki, W. E. Howard, and R. Ludeke

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 11 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317919 (6 pages) | Cited 41 times

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An ultra high vacuum epitaxy system is described, including special features such as computer control. The system is capable of preparing sophisticated structures requiring a high degree of precise control. GaAlAs films have been grown and evaluated by various techniques; He-ion backscattering and Raman spectroscopy have been shown to be particularly valuable for periodic structures. A structure with a very narrow period has been made, and its transport properties measured and interpreted by the superlattice mechanism.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
73.40.Kp III-V semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions

The Preparation of Thin Films of B-1 Structure Superconducting Ternary Compounds

J. R. Gavaler, M. A. Janocko, and C. K. Jones

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 17 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317933 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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NbN, a binary B-1 structure superconducting compound, has been successfully prepared in thin film form by a high-purity sputtering process [J. R. Gavaler, J. K. Hulm, M. A. Janocko, and C. K. Jones, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 6, 177 (1969)]. In this paper, we report on the deposition of ternary compounds, based on NbN, using a similar technique. The inclusion of a third element, such as carbon, titanium, or zirconium into the NbN structure was accomplished by sputtering in an argon-nitrogen atmosphere from a two-element target. These targets were made either by hot pressing a powder mixture of the elements into a proper form or by welding together two metal sheets into a single unit. Superconducting transition temperatures of ≳ 17 K have been obtained in both Nb–C–N and Nb–TiN thin films by depositing these films at very high temperatures. However, critical current and field data measured at 4.2 K showed that the use of very high substrate temperatures also caused a deleterious effect on these properties.
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74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
74.62.Bf Effects of material synthesis, crystal structure, and chemical composition
74.25.Sv Critical currents

Superconducting Properties and Structure of Reactively Sputtered Niobium Carbide Thin Films

Hermann J. Spitzer

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 20 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317942 (2 pages)

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Niobium carbide thin films have been sputter deposited in a reactive argon and methane plasma at substrate temperatures of 700 °C. The background pressure prior to sputtering was typically in the low 10−7-Torr range, the total sputtering pressure was maintained at 2×10−3 Torr and the partial pressure ratios of argon and nitrogen were monitored and controlled with a residual gas analyser. Jc–H characteristics were measured by applying a pulsed field and pulsed current method and transition temperatures were determined by recording resistivity versus sample temperature. The structure was studied by x-ray diffraction. Hc2 is about 40 kOe and the highest Tc is 9.6 K. Several carbide phases and their mixtures were observed and have been correlated to the partial pressure ratios of the plasma.
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74.78.-w Superconducting films and low-dimensional structures
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
74.62.Bf Effects of material synthesis, crystal structure, and chemical composition

In Situ Sputter Cleaning of Thin Film Metal Substrates For UHV-TEM Corrosion Studies

Klaus Heinemann and Helmut Poppa

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 22 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317948 (4 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A prerequisite for conducting valid corrosion experiments by in situ electron microscopy techniques is not only the achievement of UHV background pressure conditions at the site of the specimen but also the ability to clean the surface of the thin metal substrate specimen before initiation of the corrosive interaction. A miniaturized simple ion gun has been constructed for this purpose. The gun is small enough to be incorporated into an UHV electron microscope specimen chamber with hot stage in such a way as to permit bombardment of the substrate specimen while observing it by transmission electron microscopy TEM. It is shown that the ion beam generated is confined well enough to cause a sputtering removal of substrate material at a rate of approximately 5–10 Å∕min and to prevent the sputter deposition of contaminating material from the specimen holder. Thin single crystal Ni (100) film samples were used to demonstrate the applicability of the sputter cleaning technique, to show the removal of ion beam induced radiation damage by annealing, and to evaluate preliminary oxidation tests by selected zone dark-field microscopy.
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81.65.Cf Surface cleaning, etching, patterning

Carbon Monoxide Adsorption on Ni(110)

T. N. Taylor and P. J. Estrup

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 26 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317970 (5 pages) | Cited 18 times

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The chemisorption of CO on Ni(110) has been studied at temperatures down to −145 °C, by means of LEED, Auger and work function measurements, and flash desorption. Since electron impact caused dissociation of the adsorbed molecules, precautions had to be taken to minimize spurious effects. The LEED patterns showed considerable disorder but could be described approximately by the sequence c(2×2)→(4×2)→c(2×1). These structures suggest that both linear and bridged bonding of CO occurs on Ni(110), and flash desorption revealed two bindings states separated by ∼0.2 eV. The isosteric heat of adsorption for the lower energy state was found to be 1.1 eV. The maximum work function change was 1.6 eV.
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68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions

Orbital Energy Spectra of CO and Hg Adsorbed on Ni(100)

G. E. Becker and H. D. Hagstrum

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 31 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318036 (4 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Orbital energy spectra of CO and Hg adsorbed individually and co-adsorbed on Ni (100) have been determined by ion-neutralization spectroscopy (INS) and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) at 45 ° incidence. In the case of CO, two orbitals derived from the 5σ and 1π orbitals of free CO are observed 7.8 and 11.1 eV below the Fermi level, respectively, by UPS, with INS revealing only the 7.8-eV orbital since 11.1 eV is outside its accessible range. In the case of Hg, UPS and INS both reveal orbital peaks 7.8 and 9.7 eV below EF, identified, respectively, with the 5d5/2 and 5d3/2 states of Hg. The Hg(6s) orbital is not in evidence in the energy spectra obtained by either method. We have determined energy shifts of the observed orbitals with respect to their positions in the free molecule or atom and have discussed these shifts in terms of the effects of bonding and electric charge shifts in the metal-adsorbate complexes. This work permits a fairly detailed intercomparison of INS and UPS. It also bears on the problem of peak shifts due to interference between bulk and surface photoemission and possible perturbation by the probing ion in the case of ion neutralization.
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73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
79.60.Dp Adsorbed layers and thin films

The Adsorption and Decomposition of CO on Pt(111)

J. M. Martinez and J. B. Hudson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 35 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318038 (4 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A cylindrical mirror electron energy analzyer has been used to study the adsorption and decomposition of CO on an initially clean Pt(111) surface. The observed rate of adsorption and fractional surface coverage as a function of CO exposure are identical to those observed previously in this laboratory by flash filament adsorption technique. This result provides an absolute calibration of the Auger spectrometry system for carbon and oxygen. Beam-induced decomposition of CO was observed at high incident fluxes. The surface oxygen coverage decreased exponentially to zero during electron bombardment, while surface carbon decreased and then levelled off at a finite value. CO adsorption studies on this carbon contaminated surface showed decreasing CO adsorption rate and decreasing saturation coverage with increasing carbon contamination. The adsorption rate approached zero at high carbon concentration.
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82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces

Time-of-Flight Analysis of Ions and Excited Neutrals Released by ESD of CO on (100) W

Ivor G. Newsham and Donald R. Sandstrom

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 39 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318039 (4 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The release of ions and excited neutrals by the interaction of low energy electrons with CO on (100) W is studied by a time-of-flight technique. The flight time distributions, approximate threshold energies, adsorption kinetics, and dependence behavior of the desorbed particle currents upon heating and heavy electron bombardment are presented for the excited neutrals, CO+ and O+ ions in the temperature range 110–600 K. The fact that the binding state producing the excited neutrals is identical with the state releasing CO+ ions suggests that the excited neutrals are CO molecules.
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79.20.La Photon- and electron-stimulated desorption

Auger Line Shape Comparison of N and S in Two Different Chemical Environments

E. N. Sickafus and F. Steinrisser

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 43 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318040 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Line shapes of Auger electron spectra have been analyzed in the derivative mode dN∕dE to obtain evidence of chemisorption bond characteristics of sulfur and nitrogen in two different chemical environments. Sulfur in a monolayer surface structure on nickel, Ni(110)–c(2×2)S is characterized as having a residual d-band and two (molecular orbital) resonances, as first depicted by ion-neutralization spectroscopy; while sulfur in a cleaved surface (11math0) of CdS displays only filled band properties with no resolvable resonance structure. Nitrogen adsorbed on Ni(110) is characterized by a residual d-band and two resonances: one at ∼12 eV and the other at ∼25 eV below the vacuum zero. The analysis is consistent with data published earlier on a characteristic energy-loss description of Ni(110)-(disordered)N. Nitrogen adsorbed on Si(111) appears to have similar resonances at 13 eV and 27 eV below the vacuum zero with no other intervening band structure.
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79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species

Fundamentals of Ion Plating

D. M. Mattox

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 47 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318041 (6 pages) | Cited 29 times

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The term ion plating is applied to atomistic film deposition processes in which the substrate is subjected to a flux of high energy ions sufficient to cause appreciable sputtering before and during film formation. From the standpoint of adhesion, the principal benefits obtained from ion plating are (1) ability to sputter clean the surface and maintain it “clean” until the film begins to form; (2) provide a high energy flux to the substrate surface giving a high surface temperature without necessitating bulk heating, thus enhancing diffusion, chemical reaction, etc.; and (3) alter the surface and interfacial structure by introducing high defect concentrations, physically mixing the film and substrate material, and influencing the nucleation and growth of the depositing film. Ion plating is particularly effective in obtaining good adhesion in some systems where conventional deposition techniques give poor results. Another effect found in the ion plating process is the very great “throwing power” of the depositing film material. In this paper the fundamental concepts of ion plating are reviewed along with a discussion of problems peculiar to this deposition process. Several representative applications will be described.
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81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating

Design and Operation of a Large Scale Semicontinuous Electron Beam Evaporator

Albany D. Grubb

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 53 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318042 (5 pages)

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A semicontinuous electron beam evaporator has been designed and built for the application of multilayer films on glass substrates. The evaporator can apply three-layer coatings on substrates ten feet by twelve feet for use as high performance architectural and automotive products. Here we deal with some of the problems encountered in the design, construction, and actual operation of such a semicontinuous evaporator. Reflective glass produced in this system has become a major factor in the design of many new building projects.
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81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating

Advances in Diffusion Pump Technology

M. H. Hablanian and J. C. Maliakal

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 58 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318043 (7 pages) | Cited 3 times

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A review of major advances in diffusion pump technology in the sixties is presented. The discussion is limited to oil diffusion pumps, their optimum design parameters, performance evaluation, and application experience. Significant improvements have been achieved since the beginning of space-related applications (1957). Modern pumps produce speed efficiency of better than 0.5, the maximum throughout is better than 1 Torr 1∕sec per kilowatt of power, forepressure tolerance is better than 0.5 Torr, backstreaming rates at the inlet approach 10−7 g∕cm2 min and the ultimate pressure 1×10−9 Torr without traps. The major design trends and effects of baffles are also reviewed. The general emphasis is on enduring, functional design and performance aspects rather than a complete review of technical literature.
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07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps

Electrostatic Getter-Ion Pump Performance

Daniel G. Bills

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 65 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318044 (8 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Important characteristics of electrostatic getter-ion pumps are examined from the standpoint of the typical user. Results are presented from an experimental comparison of a sputter ion pump with an electrostatic getter-ion pump, both of which are commericially available and of about the same installed cost. Care was taken to insure identical conditions of use and operation during the testing on both baked and unbaked systems. A quadrupole RGA was used to insure that system conditions and gas composition were known. Data are presented for how well the pumps maintain their rated speeds, the ultimate pressures achieved, the ability to handle pressure bursts of N2, CO, H2, H2+N2, H2O, air, Ar, He, CH4, C3H8, memory, and regurgitation effects, and the ability to pump and rapidly cycle a very dirty unbaked glass bell jar evaporator.
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07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps

Cryopumping

J. P. Hobson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 73 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318045 (7 pages) | Cited 4 times

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A review is given of cryopumping. The flexibility, high available speed, and wide pressure range of this method of pumping are emphasized. Basic theory is presented, as well as modifications to the theory found in practical situations. Cryopumps are divided into two broad classes, cryosorption pumps and condensation pumps, depending on whether the surface coverage is less than or greater than about 5 monolayers, respectively. Five types of cryopumps, with examples, are distinguished: bare surface pumps, pumps with loose adsorbents, pumps with bonded adsorbents, pumps utilizing frozen deposits, and condensation pumps.
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07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps
07.20.Mc Cryogenics; refrigerators, low-temperature detectors, and other low-temperature equipment

Thin Film Manufacturing by Computer Control

M. S. Effron, C. H. Farrow, and F. R. Titcomb

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 80 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318046 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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In the thin film semiconductor manufacturing field there is an ever increasing effort toward product quality and uniformity. This paper describes the computerized evaporation process for the manufacturing of interconnecting aluminum metallurgy on silicon substrates. An IBM 1800 data acquisition and control system has been programmed to interface with several modified Veeco manufacturing evaporation systems. The function of the 1800 was to completely control the evaporation cycle, record discreet and continuous process data, perform data retrieval, and provide failure recovery mechanisms. The computer-controlled runs are compared statistically to manually controlled runs in this paper for three major process parameters: film thickness, rate of deposition, and alloy concentration (copper percent concentration in the aluminum films).
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85.40.Sz Deposition technology
07.05.Dz Control systems

Fabrication of Framed Beryllium Windows by High Rate Physical Vapor Deposition Processes

R. F. Bunshah and Robert S. Juntz

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 83 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318047 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Beryllium windows are used in radiation generators and detectors such as x-ray tubes, counters, etc., because of the low atomic number of beryllium. In current practice, thin foils of beryllium >0.001-in. thickness and brazed or welded into a frame which is then attached to the apparatus. This presents the problems of procurement of the thin foil and damage to it during the joining process. In our technique, beryllium is evaporated onto a substrate such as copper to the desired thickness and the window is produced by dissolving the substrate with concentrated nitric acid in the window area after masking off the area which forms the frame. Thus, a framed window of the different shapes can be produced. The principal problem is porosity in the deposit below 0.002-in. thickness.
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07.85.Fv X- and γ-ray sources, mirrors, gratings, and detectors
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Plasma Silicon Nitriding and Iron Boriding

Fay E. Gifford

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 85 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318048 (4 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Plasma hardening of silicon and iron surfaces was investigated to determine if such processing can provide any advantage over conventional methods. In particular, can suitably hardened surfaces be achieved at lower temperatures or with shorter process times? On solid silicon a nitride case (∼0.0002 in.) forms when the sample is heated for 2 h at 1420 °C in a nitrogen plasma at about 5 Torr. The rate at which the nitrogen diffuses into the solid silicon is greatly reduced once the case has formed. Boriding experiments on iron showed a 0.003-in. case is formed on compressed 1080 iron powder when treated at 780 °C in a boron trichloride plasma for 4 h. For these results the principal hardened layer appeared slightly below the surface and was predominantly Fe2B, contrary to the results of Lyakhovich et al. [Metal Sci. and Heat Treat. Metals (USSR) 1969]. These results show no advantage for hardening of silicon by plasma nitriding. However, iron may be plasma borided in comparable times at a lower temperature than by conventional means.
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81.65.Lp Surface hardening: nitridation, carburization, carbonitridation
81.05.Cy Elemental semiconductors

The Bond-Energy Bond-Order (BEBO) Model of Chemisorption

W. H. Weinberg

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 89 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318049 (6 pages) | Cited 2 times

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The bond-energy bond-order (BEBO) model of chemisorption allows an estimate to be made of the interaction energy between a gaseous specie and a solid surface as a function of either bond length or bond order, i.e., the length or order of either the gas-surface bond being formed or the bond of the gaseous molecule being broken. The relationship between bond energy and either bond length or bond order is deduced from spectroscopic correlations for gaseous molecules, and a linear relationship between bond energy and bond order is assumed for the surface-adsorbate interaction. The geometry of the surface orbitals is taken to be that predicted by the crystal field model. The model allows a prediction of several relevant quantities in gas-surface interactions, namely: (1) binding energies for molecular adsorbed species, (2) binding energies for atomically adsorbed species, (3) activation energies to chemisorption, and (4) activation energies to dissociative chemisorption. The model is illustrated for the adsorption of H2, CO, NO and O2 on Pt, W and Ni surfaces.
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68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species

The Use of Ion Beams in Surface Physics Studies

G. Carter

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 95 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1318050 (5 pages) | Cited 1 time

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This paper reviews recent progress on the applications of the reflection of ions, the emission of rays by ion bombardment, and the generation of secondary ion species at solid surfaces, for composition and structure analysis. The resolution and sensitivity of the techniques are discussed and the problems of rendering the processes quantitative examined.
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79.20.-m Impact phenomena (including electron spectra and sputtering)

Distribution and Apparent Source Geometry of Electron-Beam-Heated Evaporation Sources

Edward B. Graper

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 100 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317914 (4 pages) | Cited 12 times

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The distribution and apparent source geometry were determined for aluminum evaporation from a 12-kW 270° electron beam gun. The distribution was measured as a function of deposition rate for rates from 1000 to 50 000 Å∕min, 20 cm from the hearth. These measured distributions and those from other workers can be described not by a simple cosine relation, as has been assumed, but by a relation of the form (1-A) cosn θ+A, where θ is the angle from the vertical. The coefficient A is the normalized magnitude of an isotropic component, and n is a rate-dependent beaming exponent. The apparent source geometry was measured using a pinhole camera technique. These measurements show the evaporant to originate from the area defined by the visual beam impact point at low-to-moderate rates, and additionally from a larger virtual source at high rates or when a hearth linear is used. The run-to-run stability of the evaporant distribution was also determined.
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81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating

Physics of Ion Plating and Ion Beam Deposition

S. Aisenberg and R. W. Chabot

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 104 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317915 (4 pages) | Cited 13 times

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A review of some dominant mechanisms in ion plating is made. Factors influencing throwing power and film quality are discussed and the damaging effects of a high ambient gas background are considered with a view toward minimizing the harmful effects of contaminant gas background. The physical mechanisms involved in an ion beam deposition process [S. Aisenberg and R. Chabot, J. Appl. Phys. 42, 2953 (1972)] are examined. The effects of chamber pressure, electrical bias arrangements, and the introduction of a coevaporant source are discussed with regard to deposition rate, ultimate film quality, and throwing power of the system.
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81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating

A Spectroscopic Monitor for Sputter-Etching Processes

T. Bernstein and E. F. Labuda

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 108 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317916 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Sputter-etching is a convenient technique for metal pattern generation on complex integrated circuits. It is particularly advantageous for multimetal systems because it completely eliminates the possibility of undercutting of the lower metal layers as can occur with chemical etching. A real-time monitoring system has been developed for monitoring the sputter-etching process when it is used for metal pattern generation with a beam lead metallization system consisting of titanium, platinum (or palladium), and gold. The intensity of the uv atomic radiation emitted by sputter-etched atoms which are excited in the sputtering discharge is monitored. The system has been used with both triode and diode types of sputter-etching systems and can reliably be used to tell when a given metal layer has been completely removed. A detailed description of the monitoring system and its performance is given.
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer

Development of Continuous Sputtering Machines

A. M. Hanfmann, H. Y. Kumagai, and I. M. Fletcher

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 111 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317917 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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New data have been gained since a comparison of the “open-end” and closed-end” machines was made in 1968 [A. M. Hanfmann and F. J. Viola, Proc. 4th Intern. Vacuum Congress (Physical Society, London, 1969), Part II, pp. 549–553]. The “open-end” machine remained a reliable tool for sputtering resistor film (nitrided or oxy-nitrided tantalum). Development of the “closed-end” machine was aimed at optimizing the properties of capacitor (beta-tantalum) film. Beneficial effects of the lowered substrate temperature on capacitor film properties were realized (a) by improved cooling of the machine and (b) by introduction of dc-enhanced ac sputtering (H. Y. Kumagai, U. S. Patent No. 3 616 402). The dependence of dielectric leakage on sputtering voltage and current was studied. A favorable operating region was defined and used in production.
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85.40.Sz Deposition technology

The Initiation of Electrical Breakdown in Vacuum—A Review

D. Kenneth Davies

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 115 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317918 (7 pages) | Cited 23 times

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Recent investigations are reviewed of prebreakdown conduction phenomena in vacuum both for steady and for step-function applied voltages. The results of these investigations have led to the formulation of models to explain the initiation of the vacuum discharge by ionization of a vapor medium, the vapor being composed of atoms of one or both of the electrodes. A detailed examination of the events leading to breakdown has allowed a more critical evaluation of the merits and deficiencies of the various breakdown models.
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52.80.Vp Discharge in vacuum

Retarding-Field—Cylindrical-Mirror Analyzer

Robert L. Gerlach

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 122 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317920 (4 pages) | Cited 4 times

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An electron energy analyzer system incorporating a two-stage, spherical retarding-field–cylindrical-mirror analyzer as well as high current, coaxial, and glancing incidence electron guns is described. The retarding field and cylindrical mirror analyzers act as high-pass and band-pass energy filters, respectively. The resulting two-stage device has the advantages of both types of analyzers—low shot noise, high transmission, adjustable energy resolution, nearly constant energy resolution and transmission as a function of band-pass energy, and relative insensitivity to sample positioning. The glancing incidence electron gun is mounted directly on the front of the analyzer and is bore sighted onto the sample, thereby avoiding the need for deflection electrodes. Design and performance of this system are investigated.
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07.81.+a Electron and ion spectrometers

Linearity of a Heavily Loaded Quartz Crystal Microbalance

D. R. Denison

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 126 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317921 (4 pages) | Cited 7 times

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A study of the linearity of a digital microbalance was made to determine microbalance performance with high crystal loading. The 5-MHz crystals were loaded by 30Å∕sec deposition of Al in 40 kÅ steps and Cu in 8 kÅ steps. The film thickness, measured on an adjacent quartz, optical flat, was compared with the indicated film thickness of the microbalance (computed from crystal period shift). The data presented, which show linearity within ±0.3%, agrees with a theory that postulates no elastic loss within the deposited film. However, a transient phenomenon is observed with both Al and Cu that could result in microbalance errors of greater than 5%. Deposits of up to 25 mg∕cm2 (950 kÅ of Al) were studied to evaluate the magnitude of this potential error.
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07.10.Cm Micromechanical devices and systems
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Surface Photovoltage Spectroscopy—A New Approach to the Study of High-Gap Semiconductor Surfaces

Harry C. Gatos and Jacek Lagowski

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 130 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317922 (6 pages) | Cited 43 times

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Surface photovoltage spectroscopy is based on the photostimulated depopulation and population of surface states brought about by sub-bandgap monochromatic illumination, while the over-all number of bulk free carriers remains essentially unchanged. Such transitions and their transients (as determined by changes is the contact potential difference) allow the direct determination of the energy positions and the dynamic parameters of the surface states. Surface photovoltage spectroscopy was successfully applied to the surfaces of CdS, ZnO, and GaAs. A model was developed which accounts for the processes involved in surface photovoltage spectroscopy.
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72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species

The Use of Scanning Auger Microscopy in Molecular Beam Epitaxy of GaAs and GaP

J. R. Arthur

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 136 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317923 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The morphology of epitaxial films of Groups III–V compounds grown by molecular beam epitaxy has been found to be strongly dependent on the presence of surface impurities, notably carbon. In order to obtain a two-dimensional analysis of substrate surface purity, scanning Auger micrographs were obtained using a modified hemispherical retarding grid analyzer. The surface images were obtained rapidly (<1 min∕frame) with a sensitivity in some cases of better than 1% monolayer. The resolution was low (0.1 mm); however, surface areas as large as 5×5 mm could be scanned in a single image, a feature which greatly facilitated substrate evaluation. In some cases crystals showed pronounced spatial variations in surface purity. The technique has also been used to measure surface diffusion rates of Te, As, P, and Cs on GaAs with the result that in most cases the diffusion rates were quite low at temperature up to 600 °C.
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68.37.Xy Scanning Auger microscopy, photoelectron microscopy
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics

Auger and Other Characteristic Energies in Secondary Electron Spectra from Thin Evaporated Phosphorus Films

J. J. Melles, L. E. Davis, and L. L. Levenson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 140 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317924 (4 pages)

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The structure in the silicon and phosphorus Auger electron spectra (AES) for phosphorus evaporated onto a silicon substrate was studied. Similar satellite peaks were observed on the high-energy side of the silicon and phosphorus principal Auger transition. Measurements of the respective energy separations gave values lower than the silicon bulk plasmon energy. A study of the AES of phosphorus on copper did not show any reptition of the copper fine structure in the phosphorus Auger spectrum. Fine structure was observed on the silicon ionization loss peaks and was interpreted in terms of characteristic losses. These losses match those seen for the principal silicon Auger peak in size and energy. Electron binding energies, as determined from the ionization loss spectra, are reported.
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79.20.-m Impact phenomena (including electron spectra and sputtering)

The Effect of Water Vapor on the Sticking Coefficient of Lead on Silicon Monoxide

Ernest W. Bloore and Ferron A. Olson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 144 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317925 (4 pages)

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Experiments have been conducted at a total pressure of 10−9−10−5 Torr while the partial pressure of water was varied from 10−10 to 10−6 Torr. A constant lead flux of 4.5×1014 atoms cm−2 sec−1 was utilized. Results indicated that a rapid decrease in the initial sticking coefficient reached an asymptote of approximately 0.6 as the partial pressure of the residual water vapor was increased. Also, the sticking coefficient did not approach unity as deposition continued but remained essentially constant. Competitive reactions between the lead and the water molecules with the surface are proposed as an explanation of this latter phenomenon. The sticking coefficient for this system can equal unity in a total pressure range of 10−6−10−5 Torr if the partial pressure of water is restricted to less than 1×10−8 Torr.
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34.35.+a Interactions of atoms and molecules with surfaces
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics
73.20.Mf Collective excitations (including excitons, polarons, plasmons and other charge-density excitations)

Sticking Coefficient of CO2 on Solid H2O Films

V. Cazcarra, C. E. Bryson, and L. L. Levenson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 148 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317926 (5 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A molecular beam method has been used to measure the sticking coefficient γ of CO2 molecules on thin films of solid H2O. Impingement rates were below 1014 molecules cm−2 sec−1, and the CO2 gas temperature was 184 K. The substrate temperature TS was varied from 65.5–76.4 K. At TS=76.4 K, γ was initially near unity, but decreased with increasing CO2 coverage until γ≃0 at approximately monolayer coverage. When TS was below 76.4 K, the initial γ was also close to unity. As the CO2 coverage increased, γ decreased to a minimum value at about one monolayer coverage. However, γ again increased with time as CO2 continued to be deposited. These results are discussed in terms of a simple nucleation theory.
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34.35.+a Interactions of atoms and molecules with surfaces
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics

Thin Film Characterization by Nuclear Microanalysis

James F. Ziegler

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 153 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317927 (2 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Nuclear microanalysis is a nondestructive method for quantitatively profiling the constituents of thin films. It needs no calibration samples. It excels in determining atomic concentrations with depth, in finding reactions and diffusions across interfaces, and in detecting contamination. A summary will be given of recent work in the fields of dielectric films, metal alloy films, and profiling impurities in semiconductors.
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81.70.Jb Chemical composition analysis, chemical depth and dopant profiling
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.

Observations of Sputtered Thin Film Growth

Dudley M. Sherman, J. S. Maa, and Thos. E. Hutchinson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 155 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317928 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A commercial TEM has been modified to permit the observation of the early growth behavior of ion beam-sputtered thin films inside the microscope. The growth of silver on evaporated carbon substrates has been studied in detail, but the occurrence of so-called abnormal islands (large platelike particles) has prohibited meaningful quantitative analysis of the early growth processes. Reproducible silver deposits void of any, abnormal island growth have, however, been obtained on muscovite mica and graphite. The qualitative features of the nucleation and early growth of sputter-deposited silver films are similar to those of evaporated films, and to date no dependency of early growth parameters upon deposition method has been found. Silicon and niobium have also been sputtered onto graphite substrates inside the microscope, and preliminary results of early growth studies are given.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
68.37.Hk Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (including EBIC)
68.37.Lp Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Detachable (111) Cu Films Formed in Ultrahigh Vacuum

C. T. Horng and R. W. Vook

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 160 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317929 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Epitaxial Cu films 1200 Å thick were formed on evaporated (111) NaCl films in an ultrahigh vacuum RHEED camera. Information on the surface structure, microstructure, and surface smoothness was obtained by in situ RHEED techniques. The microstructure of the Cu films was also studied by transmission electron microscopy. (111) Cu films were doubly positioned. The smoothness of the films increased with increasing Cu deposition rate. The microstructure of the as-deposited Cu films also depended upon the deposition rate. Annealing the Cu films improved their perfection. However, the final microstructure of the annealed films was independent of the initial deposition rate. These annealed Cu layers were used as substrates for the epitaxial growth of Ag films several monolayers thick.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
68.60.Dv Thermal stability; thermal effects

Oxidation of (011) Iron at Room Temperature: Mainly LEED Aspects

A. J. Melmed and J. J. Carroll

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 164 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317930 (6 pages) | Cited 17 times

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The interaction of oxygen with (011) Fe at room temperature has been investigated using simultaneous combinations of LEED, ellipsometry, and surface potential measurements. This paper is concerned mainly with the LEED aspects. The sequence of LEED patterns found was either similar to that previously found or slightly different, depending on experimental conditions. In most experiments a new LEED pattern, p(2×1), was observed instead of the c(3×1) pattern previously reported. Direct keying of the LEED patterns to the ellipsometry-derived growth kinetics leads to further understanding of the oxidation mechanism. The occurrence of heterogeneous oxide nucleation is supported, and it is shown that an oxide consistent with the expected diffraction properties of FeO grows to a “limiting” thickness of about 25–30 Å in oxygen. The terminal oxide in the air is concluded to have about the same thickness but a significantly different structure.
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81.65.Mq Oxidation
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)

Advanced Thin-Film Metallurgy for Beam-Leaded Integrated Circuits

H. E. Culver, H. Schilling, and R. E. Thun

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 170 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317931 (6 pages)

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Interconnection metallizations of integrated circuits must exhibit good ohmic contact, chemical inertness, low atomic mobility, good adherence, high conductivity, and compatibility with metal-dielectric multilayering. This paper describes a multimetal interconnection system which provides both multilayer interconnections and beam leads. The film stack includes combinations of the following layers, depending on the specific functional surface area: platinum silicide, silicon dioxide, molybdenum, silicon nitride, chromium, titanium, platinum, gold, and glass. Chemical surface reaction, vapor deposition, cathode sputtering, and electroplating have been employed as deposition methods. Fabrication processes as well as test results obtained on complex integrated circuits are discussed in detail.
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85.40.Ls Metallization, contacts, interconnects; device isolation

The Electronic Structure of Solid Surfaces: Core Level Excitation Techniques

Robert L. Park and J. E. Houston

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 176 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317932 (7 pages) | Cited 5 times

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The local density of states of atoms at solid surfaces can only be examined indirectly by techniques which use the core levels of the atoms as windows. The core levels themselves are measurably shifted by changes in the distribution of valence electrons. These “chemical” shifts are frequently measured by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), but more specific information on the local density of states is provided by techniques based on excitation by electron bombardment. Ionization spectroscopy (IS) extracts excitation edges from the total secondary emission spectrum. The threshold core level excitation probabilities can be obtained by soft x-ray characteristic isochromat spectroscopy (CIS), or more simply by soft x-ray appearance potential spectroscopy (SXAPS). Auger electron appearance potential spectroscopy (AEAPS) provides similar information. In each of these techniques the shape of the excitation edges is related to the density of conduction band states, but may be modified by final state interactions and core hole lifetime broadening. The lifetimes can be determined independently by XPS.
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73.20.At Surface states, band structure, electron density of states
79.60.Bm Clean metal, semiconductor, and insulator surfaces
79.20.-m Impact phenomena (including electron spectra and sputtering)

Precision Determination of Surface Plasmon Dispersion on Al(111) Films via Inelastic Low-Energy Electron Diffraction

C. B. Duke, U. Landman, and J. O. Porteus

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 183 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317934 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A high-precision method of analyzing inelastic low-energy diffraction (ILEED) intensities is proposed for the determination of the surface plasmon dispersion relation from measured intensities. It is a refinement of a previously used procedure based on the two-step model of ILEED. The method is applied to analyze seven independent sets of ILEED intensities associated with electrons scattered in the specular beam from Al(111). All seven analyses are consistent with the surface-plasmon dispersion ħωs(p‖)=10.5+2p‖ and damping Γs(p‖)=1.85+3p‖. Energies are measured in eV and momenta in math−1. If consistency with all seven data sets is required, all parameters in both the dispersion and damping are determined uniquely to an accuracy of 3% in the constant term and 50% in the term linear in p‖. No term quadratic in p‖ is required in either the dispersion or the damping.
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73.20.Mf Collective excitations (including excitons, polarons, plasmons and other charge-density excitations)
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)

Consideration of L-Shell Ionization Cross Sections in Auger Electron Spectroscopy

A. R. DuCharme and R. L. Gerlach

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 188 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317935 (4 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Classical and quantum mechanical approaches to the LII,III-shell ionizations of isolated atoms by electron impact have been studied. Both descriptions are compared with new total ionization cross sections deduced from the LMM Auger spectra of chemisorbed monolayers. The LII,III-shell total ionization cross sections of S, Cl, Ti, and Cu adsorbed on metal surfaces are reasonably predicted by both theories at higher energies. A model for secondary excitation was recently developed to isolate the one-event cross section information. Calculations which include this effect lead to improved agreement between the experimental total ionization cross sections and those predicted by the single-event ionization theories.
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32.80.Hd Auger effect (including Coster-Krönig transitions)
79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces

Thermal Diffuse Scattering of Low-Energy Electrons at Low Temperature

Robin L. Dennis and Maurice B. Webb

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 192 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317936 (4 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A very precise low-energy electron diffractometer capable of operating from near liquid He temperatures to near 1000 K has been developed. As a first experiment, the Debye-Waller factor and the thermal diffuse scattering from a Ag(111) crystal have been studied. In earlier experiments, owing to the large multiphonon scattering, the one-phonon scattering could be determined only in the central part of the Brillouin zone. At low temperatures the one-phonon scattering is relatively much larger. Hence, using their known temperature dependences in the high temperature limit, the zero-, one-, and multiphonon contributions have been separated all the way to the zone boundary. Near the zone boundary the deviation from a continuum model due to the phonon dispersion in a discrete lattice is observed, and the angular, energy penetration, and temperature dependences have been observed.
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61.05.J- Electron diffraction and scattering
07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers
63.20.-e Phonons in crystal lattices

Effect of Steps on Low-Energy Electron Diffraction Intensity Profiles

G. E. Laramore, J. E. Houston, and Robert L. Park

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 196 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317937 (5 pages) | Cited 10 times

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A method is described for calculating the electron-solid elastic scattering amplitude when the surface area covered by the coherence width of the electron beam contains a relatively small number of steps. From this it is possible to calculate in detail the angular distribution of the scattered intensity for low-energy electron diffraction. In analogy with the perfect surface case, intensity profiles are defined which characterize the variation with primary beam energy of the central intensities for the various beams. It is shown that a step distribution reduces the central beam intensities with respect to the perfect surface case and also acts to shift the Bragg peaks in the intensity profiles to higher energies. Model calculations for simple step distributions are compared with Jona's experimental data for Al(110). For many adsorbed overlayer systems the problem of domains is simply a special case of our treatment
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61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

UHV Outgassing Measurements on Various Carbons

George A. Beitel and David K. Benson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 201 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317939 (3 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Mass spectral analyses were made of gases desorbed from carbon samples at increasing temperatures up to 2200 °K. Samples were initially outgassed above 2000 K, exposed to air for several hours at room temperature, and then tested in ultrahigh vacuum following a 24-hr bake at 300 °C. Four forms of carbon were tested (a) pyrolytic carbon, (b) Grafoil™ (Union Carbide), (c) vitreous carbon, and (d) pyrolyzed-phenolic fibers. The equivalent of several monolayers of gas (mostly H2 and CO) are evolved from all of the carbons except vitreous carbon. Less than a monolayer of gas is evolved from vitreous carbon during outgassing to 2000 K.
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07.30.Kf Vacuum chambers, auxiliary apparatus, and materials
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics

Partial Pressure Analysis Using A Two-Chamber Gauge Together with an Ion–Electron Converter

K. Ertl and E. Taglauer

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 204 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317940 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A two-chamber device has been developed together with a very sensitive ion detecting system. The hot filament is placed in a separately pumped vacuum chamber, thus eliminating interaction effects of the filament with the residual gas. Electrons from the filament pass through a very small conductance orifice into the ionization chamber. The ions are detected with a tube-shaped ion–electron converter followed by a surface barrier detector. Single ion pulses can be counted and from the pulse height distributions the counting efficiency can be calculated for different ionic species. With counting losses of 3% or less for all ions, a background current of 4×10−21 A was measured. This leads to a minimum detectable partial pressure of about 10−15 Torr which can be extrapolated to an ultimate sensitivity of 10−17 Torr. The mass resolution of the magnetic analyzer is 190 (FWHM definition).
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07.30.Dz Vacuum gauges

U.H.V. Opening Technique for Analyzing Metal Ceramic Vacuum Tubes

B. I. Grady

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 208 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317941 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A method whereby a metal ceramic magnetron tube can be opened on an U.H.V. (ultrahigh vacuum), system and then operated for gas analysis with a mass spectrometer is described. A video tape recorder is employed to record gas evolution during both the tube opening and operation, so that instantaneous gas release can be observed.∗ Vacuum integrity of the tube, on the system, is kept intact at all times. Preparation of a tube for opening is discussed in detail. Gases evolved due to the opening device piercing the metal tube envelope are also discussed.
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84.47.+w Vacuum tubes
07.30.Kf Vacuum chambers, auxiliary apparatus, and materials

Measuring Hydrocarbon Gas Pressure with an Ionization Gauge

J. R. Young

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 212 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317943 (3 pages) | Cited 10 times

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The sensitivity of an ionization gauge for CH4, C2H4, C2H6, C6H6, and C6H5CH3 has been determined. Results obtained indicate an almost linear increase in sensitivity for these hydrocarbons with the number of electrons per molecule. A reduction in ionization gauge sensitivity was observed after several hours of operation in a hydrocarbon atmosphere. Results obtained here indicate the reduction in sensitivity is due to a high electrical resistance layer formation on the small wire probe ion collector of the Bayard-Alpert ionization gauge. The sensitivity can be restored by electron bombardment of the collector or operating the gauge for several hours in an O2 atmosphere near 10−4 Torr. The high resistance layer buildup can be prevented for many hours by operating the gauge at 250 °C.
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07.30.Dz Vacuum gauges

Thermal Transpiration Error in Absolute Pressure Measurement with Capacitance Manometers

George C. Baldwin and Martin R. Gaerttner

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 215 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317944 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Readings of two Baratron capacitance manometers with sensors at unequal temperatures, when compared over a wide range of pressures in helium and nitrogen, demonstrate appreciable nonlinearity caused by thermal transpiration. The asymptotic indication ratio at low pressure, 1.026±0.002, is approximately double the value reported by Bromberg, but considerably less than the Knudsen ratio for apertures. The data can be fitted to the Liang Equation, but the coefficients are sensitive to the geometry of the apparatus in the region of temperature transition.
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07.30.Dz Vacuum gauges

Quantitative AES and LEED Study of Alkali Metal Overlayers on W(100)

S. Thomas and T. W. Haas

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 218 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317945 (5 pages) | Cited 5 times

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Experimental Auger calibration curves have been obtained for Cs, Rb, K, and Na adsorbed on a W(100) substrate, by monitoring the ratio of the adsorbate-substrate Auger peak-to-peak heights with coverage. A comparative study is made on such curves obtained in the four-grid LEED system and the cylindrical mirror analyzer. The adsorbate on a W substrate has an enhanced Auger yield over that on a Mo substrate due to the increase in the backscattering factor. The attenuation of the substrate Auger electrons is dependent on the atomic number of the alkali adsorbates. The first well-defined LEED pattern during the alkali adsorption revealed a C(2×2) structure. At higher coverages a two-domain hcp structure was observed with no change in the C(2×2) structure.
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79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)

Photoemission Spectra from Adsorbed O on W(110) and CO on W(100)

J. M. Baker and D. E. Eastman

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 223 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317946 (4 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Photoemission energy distribution curves are presented for adsorbed layers of O on W(110) and CO on W(100) surfaces. The electronic energy levels of adsorbed oxygen initially form a 2.0 eV-wide peak at −6.4 eV below the Fermi level which shifts to −6.0 eV and broadens to 2.8 eV with increasing coverage. Provision for simultaneous LEED, Auger spectroscopy, and flash desorption enable the structure and coverage of the adsorbed layers to be determined. β phase CO adsorbed in either the (1×1) or C(2×2) structures on W(100) produces a photoemission peak at −6.0 eV with a weaker peak at −3.5 eV. Adsorption of CO in the a phase gives rise to a 2.2 eV-wide peak at −8.9 eV which is identified as originating from levels essentially the same as those of molecular CO.
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79.60.Dp Adsorbed layers and thin films

Electrical Properties of Evaporated Tellurium Films and TFT's

S. K. Dey

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 227 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317947 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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In situ measurement of the resistivity of p-type Tellurium films (thickness≃150 Å) as a function of deposition rate has been made for evaluating their strain sensitivity and incorporation into TFT's. Films deposited at 2 A∕sec and subjected to an elongation strain displayed a small strain induced resistivity change which switched from a negative to a positive value as the voltage was increased. For all higher rates, the film showed a consistently positive effect regardless of the applied voltage. The anomalous behavior is ascribed to the conditions affecting the barrier height as the grain boundaries. Exposure to air generally resulted in a marked increase in conductivity. No significant increase in the strain sensitivity was observed in a transistor device using SiO and Al as the insulator and gate electrode respectively although the gate voltage modulation of the drain current was quite normal.
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73.61.Cw Elemental semiconductors
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling

Ferroelectric Properties of Tri-glycine Sulphate Thin Films

J. T. Jacobs and K. L. Keester

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 231 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317949 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Thin film of TGS between 1300 Å and 1.6 μ have been deposited by a spinning technique on A1Mg discs at low temperatures. The crystalline texture is radially spherulitic with the c-axes being confined in the plane of the substrate. The ferroelectric hysteresis curves show a maximum saturation polarization Ps of 2μC∕cm2 at 60 Hz and a coercive voltage of 1.8 V. The Curie temperature of the films with metal electrodes was 51±1 °C and the small signal relative dielectric constant was 35. The S-curves show that a 10-V pulse of 10 μsec duration can switch 100% of the 60-Hz polarization. The retention was measured for times up to one second, and appeared to be relatively constant at that time interval and beyond. The built-in bias associated with the work function of the top electrode was observed by C-V measurements.
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77.55.-g Dielectric thin films
77.80.-e Ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Piezoresistance in Evaporated Nickel Films

E. Klokholm

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 235 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317950 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The electrical resistance of a metal can be altered by the application of an elastic stress. In Ni this effect is generally negative; namely a tensile stress causes a decrease in resistance. The longitudinal gage coefficient γ (defined as the relative change in resistance divided by the relative change in specimen length) is about −20. In evaporated Ni films, the observed γ depends on the sign and the magnitude of film stress. For large tensile stresses, γ at room temperature is small and positive. As the temperature is initially increased γ changes markedly because of the change in stress with temperature. The gage coefficient increases negatively and reaches a maximum of about −10 at about 100 °C, and finally becomes about +3 at temperatures just above the Curie temperature of Ni (360 °C). After annealing at temperatures of 380 °C, the film stress apparently anneals since, as the specimen cools, γ does not follow its initial heating curve. At room temperature after annealing γ=2.7.
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73.50.Dn Low-field transport and mobility; piezoresistance
73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys

Growth Effects on Stress in Nickel Films

R. W. Springer and R. W. Hoffman

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 238 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317951 (3 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Intrinsic stress dam of 2000-Å Ni films evaporated by an electron beam gun onto Ni substrates has been obtained as a function of temperature. The choice of the substrate material has reduced differential thermal expansion effects, to less than 108 dyn∕cm2 for a total stress of 109–1010 dyn∕cm2. This figure includes possible temperature gradient effects through the thickness of the substrate. The cantilevered beam technique, with deflection determined by a modified microbalance, was used to measure the stress. External circuitry was added to the microbalance to determine the Young's modulus of each substrate in vacuum at temperature preceeding the stress measurement. The stress in the initial 800 Å of film growth is very sensitive to the cleaning technique used on the substrate. The instataneous stress appears constant with increasing thickness above 800 Å at constant temperature, and it decreases slowly with temperature above 100 °C.
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68.60.Bs Mechanical and acoustical properties
81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating
81.70.Bt Mechanical testing, impact tests, static and dynamic loads

Further Measurements on Physical Factors Influencing Accommodation Pumps

B. G. Baker, J. P. Hobson, and A. W. Pye

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 241 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317952 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Measurements similar in concept to those already reported have been continued. New experimental results on accommodation pumps will be given for six classes of measurements: (1) dynamic measurements for the gases Ne and Ar; (2) variations in the rough arm of the pump including surfaces of Pyrex leached in various ways; (3) variations in the smooth arm including surfaces of nickel (deposited under various conditions), aluminum, mica, sodium chloride, fused silica, fused silica etched in hydrofluoric acid; (4) the effect of the introduction of large quantities of Xe, O2, H2O on the pump surfaces; (5) the variation of the cold temperature between 77 and 195 °K for the gases He, Ne, Ar; (6) the pump ratio as a function of the position of the temperature gradient for four new designs of asymmetric pump.
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07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps

Access to Uncombined Titanium through an Inhibiting Film in Sublimation Pumping of Deuterium

Robert Steinberg and Donald L. Alger

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 246 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317953 (5 pages) | Cited 1 time

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In principle, titanium bulk sublimator pumping should be ideal for removing large quantities of deuterium from a vacuum system. In practice, much of the depositied titanium remains uncombined and is wasted. We have demonstrated, through a series of experiments, that it is possible (by the addition of a thin layer of titanium to an apparently occluded surface) to gain access to previsouly deposited sublayers of uncombined titanium in spite of the presence of an inhibiting film (such as an oxide) on the surface.
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07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps

Some Special Pumping Problems Associated with the Sputtering Application

Lawrence T. Lamont

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 251 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317954 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The sputtering environment imposes special requirements upon a vacuum system. Not only does the operator face the dual requirements of UHV cleanliness and high pressure operation, but the gas discharge present during the deposition may greatly increase the reaction rate of surface contaminants. This is shown to modify certain conclusions regarding backstreaming and trapping otherwise valid. Further, it is shown that the system “base pressure” may be a grossly misleading parameter and that the critical properties of a vacuum system for sputtering are cleanliness during the initial pumpdown to high vacuum and the maximum usable throughput at the sputtering pressure.
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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps

Pneumatic Logic Controls for Automatic Vacuum Systems

Charles E. Hugenberger and Donald E. Petrich

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 254 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317955 (4 pages)

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High-pressure modularly mounted diaphragm air logic elements are extremely useful in vacuum systems controls, because of their versatility, easy assembly, and freedom from effects of electrical noise. Systems designers without previous logic programming experience will find these systems relatively easy to design. The elements operate on clean house air from 25 to 150 psi and therefore require no amplification. Circuit designs and assembly procedures are discussed in detail, including optimized designs successfully used at LLL.
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07.30.Kf Vacuum chambers, auxiliary apparatus, and materials
07.05.Dz Control systems

Vacuum System for an Infrared Calibration Facility

John Uhlin

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 258 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317956 (4 pages)

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Calibration facilities for large aperture (up to 56 cm diam) infrared radiometers require commeasurable size vacuum chambers with full thermal shrouding and ultraclean pumping systems. Such a facility has been fabricated and will be described in detail. The chamber is 106 cm in diameter and 4.87 m long. It utilizes integral ion pumping for operation in the 10−6 Torr region. Economic considerations and time constraints of the total system program required local fabrication and, therefore, non-proprietary-type flange sealing. The sealing mechanism used was the flat flange with aluminum wire effecting the seal. Included in the discussion is the description of the cryogen distribution system which allows complete constant temperature control of the several shroud structures.
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07.30.Kf Vacuum chambers, auxiliary apparatus, and materials
07.87.+v Spaceborne and space research instruments, apparatus, and components (satellites, space vehicles, etc.)

Abstracts from the Symposium Proceedings

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 262 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317957 (36 pages)

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79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering

Abstract: Liquid Phase Epitaxy—Techniques and Applications

H. Kressel

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 262 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317958 (1 page)

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81.15.Lm Liquid phase epitaxy; deposition from liquid phases (melts, solutions, and surface layers on liquids)

Abstract: Influence of Electric Fields on the Agglomeration of Discontinuous Films

J. Dryer, D. Gore, and R. Speiser

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 263 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317959 (1 page)

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73.61.At Metal and metallic alloys
68.60.Dv Thermal stability; thermal effects

Abstract: A New Technique for High Speed Anodization in a dc Oxygen Glow Discharge

J. F. O'Hanlon and M. Sampogna

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 263 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317960 (1 page)

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81.65.Mq Oxidation

Abstract: Current Applications of Low Pressure r.f. Plasma to Thin and Thick Film Technologies

Adir Jacob

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 264 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317961 (1 page)

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52.77.Bn Etching and cleaning
52.77.Dq Plasma-based ion implantation and deposition
82.33.Xj Plasma reactions (including flowing afterglow and electric discharges)

Abstract: Positive Ion Bombardment of Substrates in r.f. Glow Discharge Sputtering

J. W. Coburn and Eric Kay

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 264 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317962 (1 page)

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52.77.Bn Etching and cleaning
52.77.Dq Plasma-based ion implantation and deposition
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces

Abstract: Direct Comparison of Ion-Neutralization and Ultraviolet-Photoemission Spectroscopies

Homer D. Hagstrum

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 264 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317963 (2 pages)

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79.20.-m Impact phenomena (including electron spectra and sputtering)
79.60.-i Photoemission and photoelectron spectra
61.05.jh Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)

Abstract: Interaction of Carbon Monoxide with (110) Nickel

H. H. Madden, J. Kuppers, and G. Ertl

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 266 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317964 (1 page)

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82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
73.20.Hb Impurity and defect levels; energy states of adsorbed species
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics

Abstract: Surface Self Diffusion at Cryogenic Temperatures: Rh on Rh

Guy Ayrault and Gert Ehrlich

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 266 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317965 (1 page)

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68.35.Fx Diffusion; interface formation

Abstract: Scaling up from Research and Development to Production of Ta2N–Mo–Au Hybrids

Terry L. Pierce

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 266 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317966 (2 pages)

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89.20.Bb Industrial and technological research and development

Abstract: Thin Film Preparation by Chemical Vapor Deposition

M. L. Hammond

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 268 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317967 (1 page)

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81.15.Gh Chemical vapor deposition (including plasma-enhanced CVD, MOCVD, ALD, etc.)

Abstract: The Production of Vacuum Via Ion and Sublimation Pumping

T. Tom

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 269 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317968 (1 page)

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07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps

Abstract: Turbomolecular Pumps: Theory and Operating Characteristics

Ascher H. Shapiro

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 269 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317969 (2 pages)

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07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps

Abstract: Guidelines for Pump Selection

Ronald I. Ewing

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 270 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317971 (1 page)

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07.30.Cy Vacuum pumps

Abstract: Physical Vapor Deposition Processes for Thick Films of Metals and Compounds

R. F. Bunshah

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 271 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317972 (1 page)

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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Abstract: Unusual Growth Morphology in Vacuum Evaporation Synthesized Compounds

T. Barbee, R. Hammond, and D. Keith

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 271 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317973 (1 page)

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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Abstract: New Developments in Plasmarc Melting of Metals and Alloys

G. K. Bhat

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 271 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317974 (1 page)

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52.77.Bn Etching and cleaning
52.77.Dq Plasma-based ion implantation and deposition
81.20.-n Methods of materials synthesis and materials processing
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys

Abstract: Lateral Interactions in Adsorption and Desorption Kinetics

David A. King

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 272 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317975 (1 page) | Cited 1 time

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68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics
68.43.-h Chemisorption/physisorption: adsorbates on surfaces

Abstract: Scattering of Diatomic and Polyatomic Molecules from the (100) Crystal Face of Platinum

L. A. West and G. A. Somorjai

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 273 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317976 (1 page)

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34.50.Lf Chemical reactions
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces

Abstract: Surface Blistering of Polycrystalline Niobium by Helium-Ion Implantation

S. K. Das and M. Kaminsky

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 273 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317977 (1 page) | Cited 1 time

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61.72.up Other materials
61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
61.82.Bg Metals and alloys

Abstract: Study of Aluminum Oxide Films by Ion Induced X Rays and Rutherford Back-Scattering

W. Bauer and R. G. Musket

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 273 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317978 (1 page)

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82.80.-d Chemical analysis and related physical methods of analysis
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces

Abstract: Cylindrical Diode Continuous Vacuum Sputtering Equipment for Laboratory and High Volume Production

Carroll H. George

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 274 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317979 (1 page)

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85.40.Sz Deposition technology

Abstract: Preflashover Anode Ion Species in an Ultrahigh Vacuum Diode

J. A. Panitz

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 274 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317980 (1 page)

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84.47.+w Vacuum tubes

Abstract: Recent Advances in Composition Profiling by Simultaneous Sputtering and Auger Analysis

P. W. Palmberg

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 274 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317981 (1 page)

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81.70.Jb Chemical composition analysis, chemical depth and dopant profiling

Abstract: High Spatial Resolution, Auger Electron Spectroscopy

N. C. MacDonald

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 275 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317982 (1 page)

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07.81.+a Electron and ion spectrometers

Abstract: An Ultrasensitive Hydrogen Detector and its Applications

K. B. Das

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 275 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317983 (1 page) | Cited 1 time

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07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing
07.30.Dz Vacuum gauges

Abstract: Important New Properties of an r. f. Coaxial Diode Sputtering Apparatus

Lawrence T. Lamont

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 275 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317984 (1 page)

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81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering

Abstract: High-Energy Fine Structure in the Auger Spectra of Silicon and Silicon Carbide

J. E. Rowe and S. B. Christman

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 276 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317985 (1 page) | Cited 1 time

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79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
73.20.Mf Collective excitations (including excitons, polarons, plasmons and other charge-density excitations)

Abstract: Molecular Beam Studies of the Kinetics of Condensation of Solids on Surfaces

R. J. H. Voorhoeve

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 276 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317986 (1 page)

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68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids
68.43.Mn Adsorption kinetics
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Abstract: A Discussion of Some Techniques for Obtaining Elemental Composition Profiles

J. W. Coburn

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 276 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317987 (1 page)

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81.70.Jb Chemical composition analysis, chemical depth and dopant profiling

Abstract: Characterization of Thin Films by X-Ray Diffractometry

W. Parrish

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 277 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317988 (1 page)

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61.05.cm X-ray reflectometry (surfaces, interfaces, films)
07.85.Jy Diffractometers

Abstract: Atomic Arrangement in Ion Implanted Thin Films of Ge

J. F. Graczyk and P. Chaudhari

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 277 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317989 (1 page)

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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.43.Dq Amorphous semiconductors, metals, and alloys

Abstract: In-Depth Profiles by Auger Spectroscopy and Secondary Ion Emission

J. M. Morabito

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 278 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317990 (1 page)

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81.70.Jb Chemical composition analysis, chemical depth and dopant profiling
61.72.-y Defects and impurities in crystals; microstructure

Abstract: Surface Ionization Mass Spectroscopy of Airborne Particulates

W. D. Davis

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 278 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317991 (1 page) | Cited 3 times

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93.85.-q Instruments and techniques for geophysical research: Exploration geophysics

Abstract: Membranes for Separation Processes

W. J. Ward

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 279 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317992 (1 page)

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82.90.+j Other topics in physical chemistry and chemical physics (restricted to new topics in section 82)

Abstract: The Many Facets of Vacuum Safety

M. Tom Thomas

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 10, 279 (1973); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1317993 (1 page)

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07.30.-t Vacuum apparatus