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Sep 1978

Volume 15, Issue 5, pp. 1629-1772


Limits of composition achievable by ion implantation

Z. L. Liau and J. W. Mayer

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1629 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569820 (7 pages) | Cited 13 times

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In high‐dose ion implantation for materials modification, the maximum concentration of the implanted species is determined by ion‐induced erosion (sputtering) of the implanted layer. In this review, we consider the influence of preferential sputtering and atomic mixing. The maximum concentration of the implanted species is given roughly by r/S and extends over a depth W where S is the sputtering yield, r is the preferential sputtering factor (1/2≲r≲2) and W is a depth comparable to the ion range. Good agreement between calculation and experiment is found for 150‐keV Au implanted into Cu or Fe. Surface conditions, such as oxide layers or carbon films, can alter sputtering yields and can lead to the mixing of surface contaminants throughout the implanted layer. Implantation of species A into a target material AB results in a different concentration limit, but again preferential sputtering and the total sputtering yield set this limit. Calculations for PtSi indicate that the concentration of Si is decreased by implantation of Si for S≳3.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation

Metastable alloy formation

J. M. Poate

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1636 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569821 (8 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Implantation into metals at room and lower temperatures can result in the formation of metastable phases. For low concentrations, ≲1 at. %, substitutional and interstitial solutions have been observed for implantation into Be, Fe, Ni, and Cu. At higher concentrations, ≳10 at. %, both metastable solid solutions and amorphous alloys have been formed in Fe, Ni, and Cu.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
81.10.Aj Theory and models of crystal growth; physics and chemistry of crystal growth, crystal morphology, and orientation

Amorphous metals and ion implantation

W. A. Grant

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1644 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569822 (6 pages) | Cited 7 times

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Amorphous metals lack the long‐range atomic periodicity typically found in crystalline materials and their atomic arrangements are usually best described in terms of the random packing of hard spheres. Recent work has demonstrated that ion implantation can produce metastable, amorphous alloys. A brief review of the structure of noncrystalline metals is presented and recent data on ion‐implanted amorphous alloys is reviewed. A discussion of the route by which ion‐induced amorphization proceeds is also given together with some future prospects.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
61.43.Fs Glasses
61.43.-j Disordered solids

Annealing behavior and selected applications of ion‐implanted alloys

S. M. Myers

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1650 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569823 (6 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Thermally activated processes cause ion‐implanted metals to evolve from the initial state toward thermodynamic equilibrium. The degree of this equilibration is strongly dependent upon temperature, and is considered here for three temperature regimes which are distinguished by the varying mobilities of interstitial and substitutional atoms. In addition, perturbations resulting from the irradiation environment are discussed. Examples are given of the use of implanted and annealed alloys in studies of diffusion, phase diagrams, and solute trapping.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization

Regrowth of amorphous films

S. S. Lau

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1656 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569824 (6 pages) | Cited 24 times

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In this review, we emphasize three aspects of the regrowth of ion‐implanted amorphous Si layers: (1) orientation dependence of the regrowth kinetics, (2) impurity effects on the regrowth kinetics, and (3) impurity distribution due to regrowth. To account for the orientation dependence there are at least three proposed models: (1) geometric model, (2) stress relaxant model, and (3) surface reconstruction model. Each of these models is discussed here. For amorphous Ge regrowth, the characteristics are similar to those of Si. Parallels are drawn whenever possible. An example is given to illustrate the use of ion‐implanted‐regrowth process to modify the crystallinity of thin layers.
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68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation

Ion implantation in tribology and corrosion science

J. K. Hirvonen

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1662 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569825 (7 pages) | Cited 22 times

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81.40.Pq Friction, lubrication, and wear
46.55.+d Tribology and mechanical contacts
61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
62.20.Qp Friction, tribology, and hardness

New advances in semiconductor implantation

H. S. Rupprecht

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1669 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569826 (6 pages) | Cited 3 times

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The objective of this review is to illustrate with some selected topics the advances made by ion implantation in modifying semiconductor materials, particularly silicon. The progress in obtaining extremely shallow impurity distributions, either by direct implants or by recoil methods, has led not only to better insights into the stopping phenomena of energetic particles in the low‐energy range, but also to the capability of developing advanced Schottky barrier diodes. The application of radiation damage for gettering purposes is discussed in combination with the marked increase in the pipe‐limited yield of bipolar devices. Another topic related to the generation of defects during implantation is the radiation‐enhanced diffusion. Recent studies and advances in the understanding of these phenomena are presented.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
85.30.-z Semiconductor devices

Applications of ion implantation to magnetic bubble devices

J. C. North, R. Wolfe, and T. J. Nelson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1675 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569827 (10 pages) | Cited 10 times

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Ion implantation has become an important part of magnetic bubble technology. The damage produced by implantation places the implanted layer in a state of in‐plane compression. This can change the easy axis of magnetization from perpendicular to parallel to the surface in a material having a negative magnetostriction coefficient. Several magnetic effects result from the creation of a thin layer of in‐plane magnetization at the top of the magnetic bubble supporting material. These include flux capping of the bubbles, control of the allowable magnetic bubble states, formation of bubble guiding rails at the boundaries of implanted areas, and creation of a moving magnetic pole pattern for bubble propagation in an external rotating in‐plane magnetic field. Other observed effects include increases in lattice parameter up to ∠2% and enhancement of the etching rate of the material by as much as a factor of 1000. Implantation is now widely used to suppress hard bubbles, and there is the possibility that ion implantation will be used to produce the drive patterns of the next generation of high‐density magnetic bubble memories.
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61.72.U- Doping and impurity implantation
75.70.Kw Domain structure (including magnetic bubbles and vortices)
85.70.-w Magnetic devices

Temperature dependence of electron spin polarization in low‐energy electron diffraction from W(001)

T. W. Riddle, A. H. Mahan, F. B. Dunning, and G. K. Walters

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1686 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569828 (3 pages) | Cited 1 time

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The temperature dependence of electron spin polarization and intensity in low‐energy electron diffraction (LEED) from a clean W(001) surface has been measured over the range 1000°–300°C. The effect of temperature on polarization is found to be greatest at energies for which the intensity is low and the polarization, and rate of change of polarization with energy, is large. The present results may be interpreted in terms of a shift of polarization features toward lower energies as a result of thermal expansion when the crystal is heated.
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61.80.Hg Neutron radiation effects
68.35.-p Solid surfaces and solid-solid interfaces: structure and energetics

AES studies of chemical shift and beam effect on molybdenum oxides

T. T. Lin and David Lichtman

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1689 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569829 (6 pages) | Cited 9 times

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Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) studies of the MNN spectra of MoO3, MoO2, oxidized Mo foil, and Mo (100) single crystal reveal the splitting of the Auger transition peaks which involve valence electrons. The splitting of these transition peaks is attributed to the altered valence‐band density of states which illustrates the existence of two major oxidation states in the specimen. The additional state is caused either through surface oxidation or beam‐induced reduction. Based on the M4,5N2,3V transition peak, the measurement shows the chemical shift to be 5 eV for Mo6+ and 1 eV for Mo4+. The reduction of the oxygen Auger peak‐to‐peak height (APPH) with a simultaneous enhancement of the Mo APPH and sample coloration change in the beam‐irradiated area has been observed during electron bombardment of oxide specimens. The observable changes indicate the occurence of beam‐induced decomposition and the preferential loss of oxygen from the surface. The electron bombardment mainly causes the reduction of MoO3 to MoO2. The efficiency of further reduction to the elemental metal state is low as compared to the reduction process from Mo6+ to Mo4+. Comparison of predicted Auger intensities, based on the contribution to the total Auger intensity from each atomic plane, with the experimental observations confirms the formation of a Mo4+‐rich surface layer on a beam‐irradiated specimen.
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82.80.Pv Electron spectroscopy (X-ray photoelectron (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), etc.)
79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys

Quantitative AES analysis of coevaporated Cu/Ni films and the effects of ion sputtering on them: experiments at liquid nitrogen and room temperature

K. Gota, T. Koshikawa, K. Ishikawa, and R. Shimizu

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1695 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569830 (6 pages) | Cited 11 times

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Samples of various concentrations were made by coevaporation of Cu and Ni. The coevaporation was carried out by simultaneous controlled electron bombardment heating of independent evaporation sources. The Auger‐electron spectroscopy (AES) measurements were made by using a CMA and could be done following coevaporation or ion sputtering without moving the sample in the UHV system. The absolute composition of the sample was measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). A linear relation was found between the AES measurements (700–1000 eV) and the results of AAS when the coevaporation was made onto the substrate at almost liquid nitrogen temperature. It should be mentioned that samples of homogeneous concentration from the surface to the bulk could be obtained, making quantitative AES possible. On the other hand, coevaporation onto substrates at room temperature resulted in Cu‐rich surfaces being obtained. Quantitative AES analysis using lower‐energy Auger peaks (80–120 eV) was also made using the same samples and results similar to those calculated from the higher‐energy Auger transitions (700–1000 eV) were obtained. Samples coevaporated near liquid nitrogen temperature were sputtered by argon ions of 500–2000 eV and no significant difference was observed between sputtering near liquid nitrogen temperature or after allowing the sample to warm to room temperature. The surface of a 60 at. % Cu film became Ni‐rich by 4, 8, and 12 at. % for ion energies of 500, 1000, and 2000 eV, respectively.
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79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces
06.60.Ei Sample preparation (including design of sample holders)
68.03.Fg Evaporation and condensation of liquids

Diffusion studies of Au through electroplated Pt films by Auger electron spectroscopy

G. E. McGuire, W. R. Wisseman, and P. H. Holloway

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1701 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569831 (5 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Diffusion of gold through thin films of electroplated platinum was studied using Auger electron spectroscopy. Platinum is widely used for the Schottky barrier metallization on GaAs IMPATT and varactor diodes with gold being used to contact the platinum. The effects of gold diffusion through platinum into the active semiconductor region could lead to long term reliability problems for diodes operated at elevated temperatures. Diffusion anneals in the temperature range from 750 to 900 K were carried out in an ultrahigh vacuum system while the surface sensitivity of Auger spectroscopy was utilized to monitor surface compositional changes. A grain boundary mechanism is proposed for the diffusion of Au through the 0.55‐μm electroplated Pt films. The effective grain boundary diffusion constant for Au in the thin Pt films, Db=0.18 exp  (−1.65 eV/kT) cm2/s, was determined by a time‐of‐penetration test which accounts for bulk diffusion. This diffusion coefficient differs from others in the literature due to K and Sb impurities in the grain boundaries.
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79.20.Fv Electron impact: Auger emission
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
73.40.Jn Metal-to-metal contacts
68.90.+g Other topics in structure, and nonelectronic properties of surfaces and interfaces; thin films and low-dimensional structures (restricted to new topics in section 68)

An XPS/AES study of films on electroplated Co–Sn alloy

J. H. Thomas and S. P. Sharma

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1706 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569832 (6 pages)

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X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and AES have been used to study the chemistry of the native oxide film which occurs on electroplated Co–Sn (20% Co, 80% Sn) alloy and the films which form on a sputtered Co–Sn surface exposed to pure oxygen. The native oxide is similar in composition to that which forms on Sn–Ni, that is, the film is primarily stannic hydroxide (or hydrated SnO2). The films on sputtered Co–Sn exposed to pure oxygen vary in chemical composition with the exposure and are different than the native oxide. At low exposures (<10−1 Torr min) the film is primarily SnO with only a trace of cobalt oxide. At higher exposures (∠10 Torr min or higher) the film consists of SnO2 and CoO. Film thicknesses as a function of exposure have been computed from XPS intensity measurements and vary from 6.7 to 10.5 Å.
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81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
82.80.Pv Electron spectroscopy (X-ray photoelectron (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), etc.)
79.60.Jv Interfaces; heterostructures; nanostructures
33.60.+q Photoelectron spectra

Influence of sample inclination and rotation during ion‐beam etching on ion‐etched structures

Sumio Hosaka and Seiya Hashimoto

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1712 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569833 (6 pages) | Cited 1 time

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Influences of inclination angle and rotation on etching characteristics are investigated. Inclination and rotation are two of the advantages of the ion‐beam etching method, therefore their influence is studied with particular interest. Experiments are carried out to examine the relation of sample inclination angle to the sputtering yield, etching rate, and etching factor of an etched cross section. The influence of the sample inclination angle on the etching factor is also studied. In addition, it is found that in the case of the ion‐beam etching method, the desired etched cross section can be obtained by controlling the sample inclination angle. This etching characteristic is due mainly to the ion‐restriction effect of the mask material and the horizontal etching rate characteristic to the substrate.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments

Optical spectroscopy for diagnostics and process control during glow discharge etching and sputter deposition

J. E. Greene

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1718 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569834 (12 pages) | Cited 25 times

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Applications and limitations of optical spectroscopy for process control, as well as for more fundamental investigations, of glow discharge sputter deposition and emission spectroscopies allows the determination of concentrations and spatial distributions of sputtered and background gas species in ground, metastable, ionized, and excited states. Optical probing is a sensitive detection technique with good spatial resolution. It has the advantage of providing in situ real time information without disturbing the discharge. Examples of processes which may be monitored optically include: sputter etching and film deposition rates, net elemental sticking probabilities during bias sputter deposition, plasma ’’ashing’’ of photoresists, and reactive ion etching. Optical spectroscopy has also been used as a diagnostic technique for investigating preferential sputtering of alloys, reactive gas–surface interactions, and for providing quantitative chemical analysis and depth profiling information.
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07.60.Rd Visible and ultraviolet spectrometers
52.80.Hc Glow; corona
81.15.Cd Deposition by sputtering
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements

Plasma stream transport method (2) Use of charge exchange plasma source

Takashi Tsuchimoto

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1730 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569835 (4 pages)

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The plasma stream transport method using a single plasma source has limitations for practical film deposition. Using a charge exchange phenomenon, a new plasma source is devised and tested by the plasma stream transport machine. Metals, silicon dioxide, and nitride films are deposited by this system. The mechanism of deposition under relatively high vacuum surrounding a silicon wafer is discussed as is the effect of radical atoms.
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52.25.Fi Transport properties
52.50.Dg Plasma sources
52.55.Jd Magnetic mirrors, gas dynamic traps
81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy

Mechanism of silicon etching by a CF4 plasma

J. L. Mauer, J. S. Logan, L. B. Zielinski, and G. C. Schwartz

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1734 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569836 (5 pages) | Cited 26 times

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The mechanisms for the reactive ion etching of silicon by CF4 plasma are investigated. A model is proposed whereby silicon is etched by chemical reaction with free fluorine to produce a volatile species, and also by physical sputtering. The chemical etching is shown to be enhanced by ion bombardment of the reacting surface. This etching process, together with a model for cracking CF4 in the plasma, is evaluated by comparison to actual etch rates. Experimentally, the silicon etch rate is observed to decrease with increasing silicon area, by what is called the loading effect. The functional form of the loading effect, as predicted by the model, is fitted to experimental loading curves. The contributions of the various etching components are separated, to yield empirical values for the enhancement of the chemical reaction by physical sputtering.
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82.65.+r Surface and interface chemistry; heterogeneous catalysis at surfaces
81.65.-b Surface treatments
52.40.Hf Plasma-material interactions; boundary layer effects

Heat exchanges and columnar growth in electron‐beam evaporation of silicon films for solar cell applications

S. K. Dey, A. E. Delahoy, and W. A. Anderson

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1739 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569837 (7 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Heat exchanges in electron‐beam evaporation of polycrystalline Si films are studied for the first time using an electrical model. The analysis is useful for evaluating the growth kinetics of the film which influence the diameter of the columnar structure. It is shown that Si deposition causes an unsteady thermal state resulting from the radiative interaction of the substrate with the source and adjoining system parts. The calculated values of the heat exchange rates between source, substrate and enclosure, and the temperature gradient along the substrate, are in reasonable agreement with the measured parameters. Columnar films up to 27 μm in thickness, 6μm in column diameter, and with 〈110〉 preferred orientation, have been produced by e‐beam deposition of Si on Al‐coated substrates at temperatures ranging from 400° to 600°C. SEM micrographs are included showing columnar structure, effects of etching, and previously unreported growth features and the dependence of the column axis on the direction of the vapor stream. The influence of deposition parameters on the column diameter is discussed. The absence of Al near the film surface, as determined by Auger analysis, precludes the possibiliy of liquid‐phase crystallization in the present study.
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
73.40.Qv Metal-insulator-semiconductor structures (including semiconductor-to-insulator)
68.55.-a Thin film structure and morphology

Effect of substrate temperature on the thickness of evaporated Se‐36.7 at. % As alloy films

Gerald Abowitz and Lewis B. Leder

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1746 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569838 (6 pages)

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The condensation of thermally evaporated Se‐36.7 at. % As alloys on glass, sapphire, and aluminum surfaces was measured as a function of substrate temperature between ambient and 250°C. The ’’sticking fraction’’ τ/τ0, defined as the film thickness deposited at the temperature of interest divided by the thickness deposited at room temperature, was found to decrease rapidly with increasing substrate temperature. τ/τ0 was independent of flux density in the range between 1015 and 1017 cm−2 s−1. A difference in sticking fraction was observed between the glass substrate on the one hand and the sapphire and aluminum surfaces on the other hand with no differences observed between the latter two substrates. At the higher temperatures, where τ/τ0 <0.4, the film morphology became discontinuous, leading to a well‐developed island structure. Desorption energies of 0.33 eV on Al and sapphire and 0.40 eV on glass were obtained from the temperature dependence of the sticking fraction.
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81.15.Jj Ion and electron beam-assisted deposition; ion plating

Magnetic sector atom‐probe field ion microscope with a retarding potential analyzer

Robert J. Culbertson and Toshio Sakurai

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1752 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569839 (4 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A combination of a magnetic sector atom‐probe field ion microscope and a filter‐lens‐type retarding potential analyzer makes possible the investigation of the energy distribution of field desorption as well as field ionization and the field ion energy deficit with respect to the emitter potential on an absolute energy scale. The performance of this analyzer was evaluated using various imaging gases, and its resolution is estimated to be better than 100 meV out of a 2000 eV primary energy.
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07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers

System for transferring samples between chambers in UHV

T. Fleisch, A. T. Shepard, T. Y. Ridley, W. E. Vaughn, N. Winograd, W. E. Baitinger, G. L. Ott, and W. N. Delgass

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1756 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569840 (5 pages) | Cited 10 times

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This system provides right angle or end‐on transfer of a sample holder from one chamber to another at ultrahigh‐vacuum conditions. A convenient mechanical coupling and uncoupling device and magnetically driven transfer rods allow movement of the sample‐holder assembly over distances up to 150 cm. The room‐temperature holder accommodates two samples. The heatable assembly includes contacts for resistive heating of the sample to temperatures above 1800 K and thermocouple reading of sample temperatures.
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06.60.-c Laboratory procedures
07.30.-t Vacuum apparatus

Kinetics data for diffusion of outgassing species from RTV 560 silicone rubber

C. K. Liu and A. P. M. Glassford

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1761 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569841 (8 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A detailed analytical and experimental study has been made of the outgassing behavior of RTV 560 silicone rubber. Outgassing rate measurements were made by collection of outgassed species on a cooled quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). The four outgassing species which predominate in the temperature range of 285 to 425 K have been separately identified. The initial concentration of these species in the parent material has been determined, while the diffusion coefficients and activation energy for diffusion of the two major species have been deduced from outgassing rate data. It is shown that using these data in a diffusion theory model, the outgassing rates of these major species can be predicted for arbitrary sample thickness, and for any temperature within the range studied.
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66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
06.30.Dr Mass and density
82.20.Pm Rate constants, reaction cross sections, and activation energies

Resolution factors in the use of a double‐pass CMA for ISS

W. P. Ellis and T. N. Taylor

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1769 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569842 (2 pages)

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A double‐pass CMA with a 90° ion gun is limited for ISS by the angular‐dependent ion scattering energies. A 90°±2.3° aperture mask significantly improves the peak resolution for He+/Au to 2% in ΔE/E from 7% in the unmasked mode. Although surface compositions of Ni/Cu alloys were still not resolvable with Ne+, Cu(amu 63.5) is separable from Fe(56) and As(75). As an adjunct to UPS studies, using the same analyzer, this approach is a valuable, additional capability .
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82.80.-d Chemical analysis and related physical methods of analysis
79.20.Rf Atomic, molecular, and ion beam impact and interactions with surfaces

Clean source of metallic Zr for ultrahigh vacuum surface studies

P. R. Davis and H. R. Poppa

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 15, 1771 (1978); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.569843 (2 pages) | Cited 3 times

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Abstract Unavailable
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81.15.-z Methods of deposition of films and coatings; film growth and epitaxy
81.05.Bx Metals, semimetals, and alloys
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