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Top 20 Most Read Articles
January 2008
The 20 articles with the most full-text downloads during the month, in descending order.
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Prevention of overload in high‐vacuum systems J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 10, 2629 (1992); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.577949 (4 pages)
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High‐vacuum pumps, like other compressors, have basic limitations in regard to the maximum pressure difference (and pressure ratio) and maximum mass (and volume) flow rates that they can produce. Because high‐vacuum pumps are usually made to discharge into another pump, their tolerable discharge pressure must be associated with the characteristics of the backing pump. However, it is also necessary to coordinate the performance of the high‐vacuum pump with the performance of the pumping system used for pre‐evacuation of the vacuum chamber. The traditional concept of a single absolute value for the crossover pressure used for the initiation of high‐vacuum pumping is fundamentally incorrect because it is not based on a clear mass flow limitation. To prevent overloading high‐vacuum pumps during and immediately after switching from pre‐evacuation to high‐vacuum pumping, a simple rule must be observed: the crossover must be performed when the gas mass flow from the vacuum chamber is less than the maximum throughput capacity of the high‐vacuum pump. Typically, at the end of the pre‐evacuation period, there are two somewhat distinct gas quantities associated with the vacuum chamber, the gas in the space of the chamber and the quasisteady outgassing rate. There are distinct pressure decays associated with those two gas quantities. The overloading of the high vacuum pump due to the space gas can be prevented by opening the high‐vacuum valve slowly or by using a parallel low‐conductance bypass. However, the overload due to the outgassing rate can only be prevented by following the golden rule of mass flow limitation. An immediate corollary of matching mass flows is that the larger the roughing pump, the lower the crossover pressure must be. In capture pumps, the maximum throughput value for the crossover condition must be correlated with the period of regeneration (for cryopumps) or cathode replacement (for ion pumps). |
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Conventional triode ionization gauge with carbon nanotube cold electron emitter J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 1 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2803713 (4 pages) Online Publication Date: 14 December 2007
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The authors presented a conventional triode ionization gauge with a linear-type carbon nanotube cold electron emitter, which was made by painting technology on a nickel wire. The gauge used the ratio of the ion current to the electron current to indicate the vacuum. Although there was fluctuation in the cathode’s emission current, the ratio of the ion current to the electron current kept stable with a variation of about ±10% in each pressure decade from 10−7 to 10−3 torr. The gauge showed good measurement linearity in the vacuum range from 10−6 to 10−3 torr.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 151 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2821747 (10 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 January 2008
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The surface roughness evolutions of single crystal silicon, thermal silicon dioxide (SiO2), and low dielectric constant film coral in argon plasma have been measured by atomic force microscopy as a function of ion bombardment energy, ion impingement angle, and etching time in an inductively coupled plasma beam chamber, in which the plasma chemistry, ion energy, ion flux, and ion incident angle can be adjusted independently. The sputtering yield (or etching rate) scales linearly with the square root of ion energy at normal impingement angle; additionally, the angular dependence of the etching yield of all films in argon plasma followed the typical sputtering yield curve, with a maximum around 60°–70° off-normal angle. All films stayed smooth after etching at normal angle but typically became rougher at grazing angles. In particular, at grazing angles the rms roughness level of all films increased if more material was removed; additionally, the striation structure formed at grazing angles can be either parallel or transverse to the beam impingement direction, which depends on the off-normal angle. More interestingly, the sputtering caused roughness evolution at different off-normal angles can be qualitatively explained by the corresponding angular dependent etching yield curve. In addition, the roughening at grazing angles is a strong function of the type of surface; specifically, coral suffers greater roughening compared to thermal silicon dioxide.
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Silicon etch in the presence of a fluorocarbon overlayer: The role of fluorocarbon cluster ejection J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 52 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2812444 (10 pages) Online Publication Date: 14 December 2007
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Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have been carried out to examine the role of large fluorocarbon (FC) cluster ejection during steady state Si plasma etching in the presence of a FC overlayer on the surface. Previous MD studies showed that the thickness of the FC film fluctuates during steady state Si etch, and that these fluctuations are an integral component of the Si etch mechanism. This work focuses on how the ejection of large FC clusters (containing six or more carbon atoms) contribute to FC film thickness fluctuations. Simulations reveal that ∼ 40%–60% of the carbon removal occurs through these clusters at steady state. Large FC cluster ejection was always observed when FC films form during etching. Product and kinetic energy distributions illustrate the effects of the plasma chemistry (i.e., the FC/F/Ar+ ratio impacting the surface) on the cluster ejection process. Further studies have also been carried out to examine the possibility of cluster redeposition on the surface and evaluate the likelihood of these large clusters contributing to FC film growth in typical plasma systems. Several clusters were found to have comparable (or even higher) sticking probability than the original FC deposition precursors. Overall, this work suggests that FC clusters play a key role in the Si etch process in these systems, and can also contribute to FC film growth. The effects of clusters in profile simulations and other plasma processing analyses may be more important than previously thought.
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Nanosphere lithography: A materials general fabrication process for periodic particle array surfaces J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 13, 1553 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.579726 (6 pages)
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In this article nanosphere lithography (NSL) is demonstrated to be a materials general fabrication process for the production of periodic particle array (PPA) surfaces having nanometer scale features. A variety of PPA surfaces have been prepared using identical single‐layer (SL) and double‐layer (DL) NSL masks made by self‐assembly of polymer nanospheres with diameter, D=264 nm, and varying both the substrate material S and the particle material M. In the examples shown here, S was an insulator, semiconductor, or metal and M was a metal, inorganic ionic insulator, or an organic π‐electron semiconductor. PPA structural characterization and determination of nanoparticle metrics was accomplished with atomic force microscopy. This is the first demonstration of nanometer scale PPA surfaces formed from molecular materials. © 1995 American Vacuum Society |
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Angular etching yields of polysilicon and dielectric materials in Cl2/Ar and fluorocarbon plasmas J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 161 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2821750 (13 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 January 2008
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The angular etching yields of polysilicon in Cl2/Ar plasmas, and dielectric materials (thermal silicon dioxide and low-k dielectric coral) in fluorocarbon plasmas, have been characterized in an inductively coupled plasma beam apparatus. The effects of ion energy, feed gas composition, and plasma source pressure are studied. The experimental results showed that these etching parameters had a significant impact on the resulting angular etching yield curve. In particular, the angular etching yield curve was more sputteringlike at low plasma source pressure and/or low effective gas percentage (Cl2 and C4F8), with a peak around 60°–70° off-normal ion incident angle. In contrast, ion-enhanced-etching-like angular curves, which dropped gradually with off-normal angle, were formed at high plasma source pressure and/or high effective gas percentage. Further analysis indicated that the effective neutral-to-ion flux ratio reaching the surface was the primary factor influencing the angular etching yield curve. More specifically, the angular etching yield curve had physical sputtering characteristics at low neutral-to-ion flux ratios; while etching process was really dominated by ion-enhanced etching at high ratios and the angular curve was ion-enhanced-etching-like. The polymer deposition effects are also discussed in this article.
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Effects of interfacial layer structures on crystal structural properties of ZnO films J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 90 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2821741 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 14 December 2007
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Single crystalline ZnO films were grown on Cr compound buffer layers on (0001) Al2O3 substrates by plasma assisted molecular beam epitaxy. In terms of lattice misfit reduction between ZnO and substrate, the CrN and Cr2O3/CrN buffers are investigated. The structural and optical qualities of ZnO films suggest the feasibility of Cr compound buffers for high-quality ZnO films growth on (0001) Al2O3 substrates. Moreover, the effects of interfacial structures on selective growth of different polar ZnO films are investigated. Zn-polar ZnO films are grown on the rocksalt CrN buffer and the formation of rhombohedral Cr2O3 results in the growth of O-polar films. The possible mechanism of polarity conversion is proposed. By employing the simple patterning and regrowth procedures, a periodical polarity converted structure in lateral is fabricated. The periodical change of the polarity is clearly confirmed by the polarity sensitive piezo response microscope images and the opposite hysteretic characteristic of the piezo response curves, which are strict evidences for the validity of the polarity controlling method as well as the successful fabrication of the periodical polarity controlled ZnO structure.
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Dry etching of polydimethylsiloxane for microfluidic systems J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 20, 975 (2002); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1460896 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 7 May 2002
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A fluorine-based reactive ion etch (RIE) process has been developed to anisotropically dry etch the silicone elastomer polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). This technique complements the standard molding procedure that makes use of forms made of thick SU-8 photoresist to produce features in the PDMS. Total gas pressure and the ratio of O2 to CF4 were varied to optimize etch rate. The RIE recipe developed in this study uses a 1:3 mixture of O2 to CF4 gas resulting in a highly directional and stable etch rate of approximately 20 μm per hour. Selective dry etching can be performed through a photolithographically patterned metal etch mask providing greater precision and alignment with preexisting molded features. The dry etch process is presented in this article along with a brief comparison to recently reported wet etch approaches. © 2002 American Vacuum Society. |
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Early morphological changes on Si(111) surfaces during UHV processing J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 1449 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2771559 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 21 August 2007
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The evolution of the morphology of vicinal Si(111) surfaces during UHV annealing was followed in details for two types of surface regions: (a) general flat areas of the surface and (b) near the edges of patterned structures such as craters and mesas. The measured surface roughness first increases through an Ostwald ripening process and then approaches that of an atomically flat surface. The morphologies that develop close to the boundaries of etched craters are initially similar to those predicted by the continuum theory of local surface transport, but, as the surface roughness decreases, facets replace the rounded corners. The ridges that develop around isolated craters persist during UHV annealing as long as continuous step flow due to evaporation is taking place.
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Metal–organic interface and charge injection in organic electronic devices J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 21, 521 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1559919 (11 pages) Online Publication Date: 18 March 2003
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Charge injection at the interface between metallic electrodes and organic semiconductors plays a crucial role in the performance of organic (opto-)electronic devices. This article discusses the current understanding of the formation of the metal–organic contact and the parameters which control the injection current. Organic semiconductors differ significantly from their inorganic counterparts, primarily because they are amorphous van der Waals solids. As a result the electronic states are highly localized, and charge transport is by site-to-site hopping. Organics can also form clean interfaces with many metals, free of interface states in the gap. Nevertheless, there is generally found to be a significant vacuum level offset, the origins of which are not yet fully understood. Organic semiconductors are frequently free of donor and acceptor dopants, and as a result the depletion depth is larger than the organic layer thickness. Thus the Fermi level in the organic and the charge injection barriers depend most directly on the interface offset. The charge injection process is described as thermally assisted tunneling from the delocalized states of the metal into the localized states of the semiconductor, whose energy includes contributions from the mean barrier height, the image potential, the energetic disorder, and the applied electric field. There is no completely satisfactory analytic theory for the field and temperature dependence of the injection current, which, for well characterized interfaces, exhibits behavior relating to both thermionic emission and field-induced tunneling. © 2003 American Vacuum Society. |
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Thermotunnel refrigerator with vacuum/insulator tunnel barrier: A theoretical analysis J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 5 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2803717 (3 pages) Online Publication Date: 14 December 2007
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The authors use two insulator layers in thermotunnel refrigerator to modify the shape of the tunneling barrier so that electrons with high kinetic energy pass it with increased probability. Theoretical analysis show that the overall tunneling current between the electrodes contains an increased number of high kinetic energy electrons and a reduced number of low energy ones, leading to high efficiency. The particular case of vacuum gap and solid insulator layer is calculated using digital methods. Efficiency remains high in the wide range of the emitter electric field. The cooling coefficient is found to be as high as 40%−50% in the wide range of the emitter electric field.
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Process integration for through-silicon vias J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 23, 824 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1864012 (6 pages) Online Publication Date: 24 June 2005
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The formation of a through-silicon via (TSV) enables three-dimensional (3D) interconnects for chip-stacking applications that will be especially important for integrating heterogeneous devices. Many processing steps are involved with the major areas including: via formation; deposition of via insulation, barrier, and Cu seed films; Cu electroplating for via-fill; wafer thinning; and backside processing. The via diameter is 4–8 μm, via depth is 15–20 μm, and a 20 μm pitch is used in this study. Each step will be described in the process flow with the considerations discussed for successful process integration.
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On the electrochemical etching of tips for scanning tunneling microscopy J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 8, 3570 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.576509 (6 pages)
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The sharpness of tips used in scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is one factor which affects the resolution of the STM image. In this paper, we report on a direct‐current (dc) drop‐off electrochemical etching procedure used to sharpen tips for STM. The shape of the tip is dependent on the meniscus which surrounds the wire at the air–electrolyte interface. The sharpness of the tip is related to the tensile strength of the wire and how quickly the electrochemical reaction can be stopped once the wire breaks. We have found that the cutoff time of the etch circuit has a significant effect on the radius of curvature and cone angle of the etched tip; i.e., the faster the cutoff time, the sharper the tip. We have constructed an etching circuit with a minimum cut‐off time of 500 ns which uses two fast metal–oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFET) and a high‐speed comparator. The radius of curvature of the tips can be varied from approximately 20 to greater than 300 nm by increasing the cutoff time of the circuit. |
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 174 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2823491 (10 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 January 2008
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A plasma-assisted directed vapor deposition approach has been explored for the synthesis of lithium phosphorous oxynitride (Lipon) thin films. A Li3PO4 source was first evaporated using a high voltage electron beam and the resulting vapor entrained in a nitrogen-doped supersonic helium gas jet and deposited on a substrate at ambient temperature. This approach failed to incorporate significant concentrations of nitrogen in the films. A hollow cathode technique was then used to create an argon plasma that enabled partial ionization of both the Li3PO4 vapor and nitrogen gas just above the substrate surface. The plasma-enhanced deposition process greatly increased the gas phase and surface reactivity of the system and facilitated the synthesis and high rate deposition of amorphous Lipon films with the N/P ratios between 0.39 and 1.49. Manipulation of the plasma-enhanced process conditions also enabled control of the pore morphology and significantly affected the ionic transport properties of these films. This enabled the synthesis of electrolyte films with lithium ion conductivities in the 10−7–10−8 S/m range. They appear to be well suited for thin-film battery applications.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 8 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2804424 (9 pages) Online Publication Date: 14 December 2007
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Microwave-excited high-density plasma etching equipment with a dual shower-plate structure has been developed to overcome various disadvantageous of current reactive-ion etching equipment. Disadvantages include severe charge-up damage, heavy dependence of etching speed on pattern size, and very limited etching conditions, where the plasma uniformity over the entire wafer surface is only maintained for predetermined gas species, gas working pressure, self-bias voltage, and wafer surface patterns and materials. The authors’ new system has been confirmed to be free from charge-up damage, have pattern-size-dependent etching speed, and maintain the plasma uniformity over the entire wafer surface even if gas species, gas working pressure, self-bias voltage, and wafer surface patterns and materials are changed. To establish damage-free contact-hole etching without degradation of contact resistance of source and drain electrodes of metal-oxide-semiconductor transistors, damage of heavily doped Si induced by ion bombardment through the silicide (TaSi2) is investigated by using this new system. Carrier deactivation and Si lattice damage are found at the heavily doped Si layer even by ion-bombardment through the silicide when the energy of the bombarding ions to the wafer surface is larger than the critical value, which depends on gas species and frequency of rf power applied to the wafer electrode. Highly productive damage-free etching has been established for source and drain contact-hole etching by combining high-speed etching and damage-free etching using this new system, where the self-bias voltage is set at high voltages for high-speed etching and decreased to −300 to −500 V for damage-free etching at the final stage of contact-hole etching. In this new system, the plasma uniformity is widely maintained even if the self-bias voltage is widely varied during processes.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 103 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2816940 (11 pages) Online Publication Date: 17 December 2007
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A linked set of Monte Carlo applications has been developed in order to investigate the sputtering, deposition, and ionization processes in a circular direct current unbalanced magnetron discharge. Particles respond to prescribed electric and magnetic fields, the former taken from experimental measurements, and self-consistent plasma behavior resulting in changes in the fields is not accounted for. The motion of energetic electrons emitted from the target surface by ion impacts is followed in the gas phase in order to characterize ionization and excitation collisions and elastic scattering with argon filling gas. The inhomogeneous erosion track profile is computed and compared with experimental measurements. The transport of titanium sputtered neutrals between the target and substrate surfaces is then analyzed using both a rigid sphere collision model and an interatomic potential model to describe collisions between sputtered neutrals and background gas atoms. The radial emission distribution of sputtered atoms is taken from the electron transport model. The mean arrival energy and the angular distribution of titanium neutrals impinging on the substrate surface, and the metal density profile between target and substrate are calculated. Finally, the electron impact ionization of titanium neutrals in a plasma formed by a mixture of titanium (10% of argon density) and argon atoms is simulated, motivated by the promising possibility of controlling the deposition process by influencing the direction of the ion flux.
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Thermal stability and thermo-mechanical properties of magnetron sputtered Cr-Al-Y-N coatings J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 29 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2806943 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 14 December 2007
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Cr1−xAlxN coatings are promising candidates for advanced machining and high temperature applications due to their good mechanical and thermal properties. Recently the authors have shown that reactive magnetron sputtering using Cr-Al targets with Al/Cr ratios of 1.5 and Y contents of 0, 2, 4, and 8 at % results in the formation of stoichiometric (Cr1−xAlx)1−yYyN films with Al/Cr ratios of ∼ 1.2 and YN mole fractions of 0%, 2%, 4%, and 8%, respectively. Here, the impact of Y on thermal stability, structural evolution, and thermo-mechanical properties is investigated in detail. Based on in situ stress measurements, thermal analyzing, x-ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy studies the authors conclude that Y effectively retards diffusional processes such as recovery, precipitation of hcp-AlN and fcc-YN, grain growth, and decomposition induced N2 release. Hence, the onset temperature of the latter shifts from ∼ 1010 to 1125 °C and the hardness after annealing at Ta = 1100 °C increases from ∼ 32 to 39 GPa with increasing YN mole fraction from 0% to 8%, respectively.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1197 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2167077 (6 pages) Online Publication Date: 21 June 2006
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Ultrathin coatings of fluorosilane films for silicon and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) nanochannels are desirable to control the hydrophobicity of the surface and reduce or prevent undesired protein adsorption or cell interactions critical for the performance of most biomedical micro/nanodevices. Surface modifications using vapor-phase deposition become increasingly important for some biomedical nanodevices and have advantages over liquid-phase deposition since the vapor phase can permeate more efficiently into silicon nanochannels. In this study, vapor-phase deposition was used to deposit ultrathin films of four fluorosilanes on silicon and PDMS and identify deposition conditions for an optimal process. The films were characterized by means of a contact angle analyzer for hydrophobicity, an ellipsometer for film thickness, and an atomic force microscope for surface roughness of these films. Results of this study and relevant mechanisms are the subject of this article.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 26, 133 (2008); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2819268 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 January 2008
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Using a novel growth technique called reactive bias target ion beam deposition, the authors have prepared highly oriented VO2 thin films on Al2O3 (0001) substrates at various growth temperatures ranging from 250 to 550 °C. The influence of the growth parameters on the microstructure and transport properties of VO2 thin films was systematically investigated. A change in electrical conductivity of 103 was measured at 341 K associated with the well known metal-insulator transition (MIT). It was observed that the MIT temperature can be tuned to higher temperatures by mixing VO2 and other vanadium oxide phases. In addition, a current/electric-field induced MIT was observed at room temperature with a drop in electrical conductivity by a factor of 8. The current densities required to induce the MIT in VO2 are about 3×104 A/cm2. The switching time of the MIT, as measured by voltage pulsed measurements, was determined to be no more than 10 ns.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 23, 215 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1818133 (3 pages) Online Publication Date: 4 January 2005
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A computer-controlled system that allows acquisition of large volumes of temperature programmed desorption data under ultrahigh vacuum conditions has been designed and tested. The vacuum part of the system consists of a sample mounted on a rotation–translation manipulator, a shielded quadrupole mass spectrometer for the desorption flux measurement, and a collimated molecular beam doser for adsorbate delivery. The experiment involves a series of tasks: (1) dosing of the adsorbate onto the surface; (2) calibration of the mass spectrometer gain; (3) translating the dosed sample to the mass spectrometer position; (4) linearly ramping the temperature of the sample to acquire the desorption spectrum; and (5) cooling the sample. In the system described here, these tasks are accomplished automatically. As a result, the time needed for the experiment and the potential for operator errors are substantially reduced. The performance of the system is demonstrated for CCl4 adsorbed on gold-supported single wall carbon nanotubes. |
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