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Top 20 Most Read Articles
October 2006
The 20 articles with the most full-text downloads during the month, in descending order.
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Application of porcelain enamel as an ultra-high-vacuum-compatible electrical insulator J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 18, 1751 (2000); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.582418 (4 pages)
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Many accelerator vacuum system components require electrical insulation internal to the vacuum system. Some accelerator components at Brookhaven National Laboratory are installed in ultra-high-vacuum systems which require the insulation to have excellent vacuum characteristics, be radiation resistant, and be able to withstand high temperatures when used on baked systems. Porcelain enamel satisfies all these requirements. This article describes the process and application of coating metal parts with porcelain enamel to provide electrical insulation. The mechanical and vacuum testing of Marman flanges coated with porcelain and using metal Helicoflex seals to form a zero-length electrical break are detailed. The use of porcelain enameled parts is attractive since it can be done quickly, is inexpensive and environmentally safe, and most of all satisfies stringent vacuum system requirements. © 2000 American Vacuum Society. |
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Design of a vapor transport deposition process for thin film materials J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1695 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2214689 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 August 2006
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A vapor transport process for continuous deposition of elemental and compound thin film materials is presented. The process saturates a carrier gas with a vapor from a subliming source. The saturated mixture is directed over a substrate at lower temperature, resulting in a supersaturation condition and subsequent film growth. The process geometry, comprising the dimensions of the saturation and deposition zones, carrier gas pressure and flow rate, and saturation zone temperature are determined by calculating worst-case characteristic times and simply insuring that the residence time of the carrier gas sufficiently exceeds these times. A model was used to design a system, which is currently being used to deposit 1–10 μm thick CdTe films on a 10×10 cm2 translating substrate. The process produces film thickness uniformity to within ±5% in the translation direction and across the deposition zone, with a material utilization of 50%. Linear translation speed of 12.5 cm/min has been demonstrated in depositing a 4.5 μm CdTe film. The vapor transport process has also been used to deposit CdxZn1−xTe alloy films over a wide range of compositions by addition of ZnTe to the source. Photovoltaic conversion efficiencies of >13% for CdTe and >12% for CdxZn1−xTe have been achieved by devices fabricated from vapor transport deposited films deposited on to moving CdS coated substrates. Refinements are suggested for commercial-scale deposition.
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Dry etching of polydimethylsiloxane for microfluidic systems J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 20, 975 (2002); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1460896 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 7 May 2002
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A fluorine-based reactive ion etch (RIE) process has been developed to anisotropically dry etch the silicone elastomer polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). This technique complements the standard molding procedure that makes use of forms made of thick SU-8 photoresist to produce features in the PDMS. Total gas pressure and the ratio of O2 to CF4 were varied to optimize etch rate. The RIE recipe developed in this study uses a 1:3 mixture of O2 to CF4 gas resulting in a highly directional and stable etch rate of approximately 20 μm per hour. Selective dry etching can be performed through a photolithographically patterned metal etch mask providing greater precision and alignment with preexisting molded features. The dry etch process is presented in this article along with a brief comparison to recently reported wet etch approaches. © 2002 American Vacuum Society. |
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1782 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2218857 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 3 August 2006
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The pulsed magnetron sputtering of transparent conductive oxide (TCO) films from powder targets is a promising technique, which produces films with dense columnar, defect-free structures and optical and electrical properties comparable to other deposition techniques. The targets are formed from loosely packed oxide powder blends, and no additional processes, such as sintering, are required. This preparation method allows target composition and, therefore, film composition (a key parameter in TCO coatings) to be readily varied. The flexibility of this approach was exploited to produce a series of doped zinc oxide coatings, in which both the dopant level (1–5 at. %) and the dopant material (Al, Sn, In, Sb, or Ga) were varied systematically. The structures and properties of these coatings were analyzed and measured using a range of techniques, including electron microscopy, spectrophotometry, x-ray diffraction, four-point probe, and Van der Pauw’s method. The TCO coatings were deposited in a rig specially designed for this purpose, and the impact of specific design features on the coating structures and properties are also considered.
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Nanosphere lithography: A materials general fabrication process for periodic particle array surfaces J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 13, 1553 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.579726 (6 pages)
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In this article nanosphere lithography (NSL) is demonstrated to be a materials general fabrication process for the production of periodic particle array (PPA) surfaces having nanometer scale features. A variety of PPA surfaces have been prepared using identical single‐layer (SL) and double‐layer (DL) NSL masks made by self‐assembly of polymer nanospheres with diameter, D=264 nm, and varying both the substrate material S and the particle material M. In the examples shown here, S was an insulator, semiconductor, or metal and M was a metal, inorganic ionic insulator, or an organic π‐electron semiconductor. PPA structural characterization and determination of nanoparticle metrics was accomplished with atomic force microscopy. This is the first demonstration of nanometer scale PPA surfaces formed from molecular materials. © 1995 American Vacuum Society |
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1706 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2214694 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 August 2006
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Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) processes have been developed to produce prototype barrier coatings for protection from detrimental gases. The strategy used is based on a combination of molecular precursor design and advanced plasma processing and represents a route to an effective, barrier solution. Silicon carbide room temperature deposition processes have been established on several reactor systems. The impact of process-operating factors on the structure and barrier performance has been analyzed and a wide range of tunability has been found. A metrology has been developed to estimate the optical, mechanical, and application-relevant barrier properties. In addition, coatings have been analyzed for subnanometer structural defects by positronium annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS). None of the barriers present evidence of any mesopores or open porosity. Furthermore, the amount of nanostructural defects in layers has been found to depend on both plasma chemistry and power. Based on the PALS results, structural models of different types of barrier layers are proposed. Significant progress in barrier performance has been demonstrated in terms of water vapor transmission rate down in the range of 10−4 g/m2 d.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1718 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2217978 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 August 2006
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Highly selective etching of SiO2 over Si is central to the manufacture of ultralarge scale integration devices; the process is generally one of reactive ion etching using polymerizing fluorocarbon chemistry. A number of species including electrons, ions, and radicals are generated by reactions in the gas phase and on the surface in the plasma process. A large number of highly reactive fluorine atoms, fluorocarbon radicals, and ions interact with the substrate and produce etch products. These etch products, primarily SiF4 and SiF2, diffuse back into the bulk plasma where they are dissociated and ionized by interactions with electrons, and the resultant products are transported and redeposited onto the substrate and/or wall surface. That is, the plasma structure may differ depending on whether the Si (or SiO2) surface has been exposed to etching or not. Hence, it is essential to investigate the spatiotemporal characteristics of the plasma structure during etching. In this study, measurements of plasma structure during Si or SiO2 etching in CF4/Ar radio-frequency inductively coupled plasma (rf-ICP) were performed using computerized tomography of optical emission spectroscopy to investigate plasma-surface interactions. We focused on the characteristics of etch products, their daughter products, and the etchant in the gas phase during Si and SiO2 etching in CF4/Ar rf-ICP and the disturbance of the plasma structure at high amplitudes of LF bias.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1197 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2167077 (6 pages) Online Publication Date: 21 June 2006
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Ultrathin coatings of fluorosilane films for silicon and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) nanochannels are desirable to control the hydrophobicity of the surface and reduce or prevent undesired protein adsorption or cell interactions critical for the performance of most biomedical micro/nanodevices. Surface modifications using vapor-phase deposition become increasingly important for some biomedical nanodevices and have advantages over liquid-phase deposition since the vapor phase can permeate more efficiently into silicon nanochannels. In this study, vapor-phase deposition was used to deposit ultrathin films of four fluorosilanes on silicon and PDMS and identify deposition conditions for an optimal process. The films were characterized by means of a contact angle analyzer for hydrophobicity, an ellipsometer for film thickness, and an atomic force microscope for surface roughness of these films. Results of this study and relevant mechanisms are the subject of this article.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1920 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2336227 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 21 August 2006
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Silicon oxide etching was modeled using a translating mixed-layer model, a novel surface kinetic modeling technique, and the model showed good agreement with measured data. Carbon and fluorine were identified as the primary contributors to deposition and etching, respectively. Atomic fluorine flux is a major factor that determines the etching behavior. With a chemistry having a small amount of atomic fluorine (such as the C4F8 chemistry), etching yield shows stronger dependence on the composition change in the gas flux.
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Wide-range vibratory vacuum gauge J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1702 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2214691 (4 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 August 2006
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We describe a vibratory vacuum gauge in which a small force due to high-frequency compression of a gas excites a planar mechanical oscillator. Compared to vibratory viscosity gauges, this principle allows operation at lower pressures. With a prototype apparatus we demonstrate sensitivity from 105 to 10−4 Pa for argon, nitrogen, and helium. A simple theory for the device is presented which gives an account of the pressure and molecular weight dependence of the response in the molecular flow regime.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1906 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2336225 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 21 August 2006
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Silicon oxide etching processes in C2F6 and C4F8+80% Ar plasmas were investigated. Neutral and ion compositions in the plasma were measured using quadrupole mass spectrometry and etching yield was measured by a quartz-crystal microbalance. In C2F6 plasma, the concentration of atomic fluorine in the neutral flux was 5%–25%, whereas there was less than 0.5% of atomic fluorine in C4F8+80% Ar plasma. A surface plot representing the etching yield as a function of neutral and ion fluxes was constructed and used to qualitatively explain the etching characteristics of silicon oxide in fluorocarbon plasmas. In C2F6 chemistry, etching yield decreases slightly with increasing rf coil power. This is attributed to the decrease in both F/ion and CFx/ion, which is caused by an increase in ion flux, with a more significant effect due to a decrease in F/ion. In C4F8+80% Ar chemistry, however, etching yield increases with increasing rf coil power. This is attributed to the decrease in CFx, without the effect of F/ion due to the low atomic fluorine concentration. With increased operating pressure, etching yield decreases for both chemistries because as the pressure increases, ion current decreases, and CFx neutral concentration increases to have more deposition and less etching.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 19, 1800 (2001); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1380721 (6 pages)
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We have demonstrated large-scale production (10 g/day) of high-purity carbon single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) using a gas-phase chemical-vapor-deposition process we call the HiPco process. SWNTs grow in high-pressure (30–50 atm), high-temperature (900–1100 °C) flowing CO on catalytic clusters of iron. The clusters are formed in situ: Fe is added to the gas flow in the form of Fe(CO)5. Upon heating, the Fe(CO)5 decomposes and the iron atoms condense into clusters. These clusters serve as catalytic particles upon which SWNT nucleate and grow (in the gas phase) via CO disproportionation: CO+CO⇒CO2+C(SWNT). SWNT material of up to 97 mol % purity has been produced at rates of up to 450 mg/h. The HiPco process has been studied and optimized with respect to a number of process parameters including temperature, pressure, and catalyst concentration. The behavior of the SWNT yield with respect to various parameters sheds light on the processes that currently limit SWNT production, and suggests ways that the production rate can be increased still further. © 2001 American Vacuum Society. |
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The microstructure of sputter‐deposited coatings J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 4, 3059 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.573628 (7 pages)
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Microstructure is a critical consideration when polycrystalline or amorphous thin films are used for applications such as microcircuit metallization layers and diffusion barriers. The trend in device fabrication toward lower processing temperatures means that such coatings must often be deposited at substrate temperatures T that are low relative to the coating material melting point Tm. The structure of vapor deposited coatings grown under these conditions consists typically of a columnar growth structure, defined by voided open boundaries, which is superimposed on a microstructure which may be polycrystalline (defined by metallurgical grain boundaries) or amorphous. The voided growth structure is clearly undesirable for most applications. Its occurrence is a fundamental consequence of atomic shadowing acting in concert with the low adatom mobilities that characterize low T/Tm deposition, and its formation can be enhanced by the surface irregularities which are common to microcircuit fabrication. This paper reviews some of the recent developments in understanding the fundamental aspects of the relationship between the deposition conditions and the microstructure of sputter‐deposited thin films, with particular emphasis on the origin of the growth structure and its suppression through energetic particle bombardment. |
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High-rate plasma-deposited SiO2 films for surface passivation of crystalline silicon J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1823 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2232580 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 7 August 2006
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SiO2 films were deposited by means of the expanding thermal plasma technique at rates in the range of 0.4–1.4 μm/min using an argon∕oxygen∕octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (OMCTS) gas mixture. The film composition was studied by means of various optical and nuclear profiling techniques. The films deposited with a low OMCTS to oxygen ratio showed no residual carbon and a low hydrogen content of ∼ 2% with a refractive index close to thermal oxide. For a higher OMCTS to oxygen ratio a carbon content of ∼ 4% was detected in the films and the refractive index increased to 1.67. The surface passivation of the SiO2 films was tested on high quality crystalline silicon. The films yielded an excellent level of surface passivation for plasma-deposited SiO2 films with an effective surface recombination velocity of 54 cm/s on 1.3 Ω cm n-type float zone crystalline silicon substrates after a 15 min forming gas anneal at 600 °C.
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Topography in secondary ion mass spectroscopy images J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1730 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2217980 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 August 2006
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Interpretation of time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (TOF-SIMS) images from rough samples such as particles, fibers, or biological specimens can be problematic because the images are influenced not only by the sample chemistry but also by topographical features. In this article we have investigated the influence of spherical and cylindrical features on total ion yields, relative ion yields, and feature shape. TOF-SIMS images of Pluronic coated fibers and polystyrene spheres were collected using both triple focusing time and reflectron geometry instruments and a 25 keV Ga+ primary ion source. The fibers and spheres were analyzed on both conducting and insulating substrates to assess the importance of field effects. Trends in the images have been explored using principal components analysis and Poisson and multinomial mixture models. The T2 test was employed to assess the statistical significance of results. The results identify three important topographic effects. The size and shape of features can be distorted as a result of the incidence angle of the primary ion beam. Additionally, both the absolute and relative intensities of ion peaks vary as a result of topography. In regions where the primary ion beam impacted the sample at a glancing angle, the relative intensity of molecular fragments characteristic of the Pluronic surfactant was up to three times higher than in regions where the beam impacted the sample at a normal angle. Comparison of results from conducting and insulating samples suggests that changes in the relative ion yields resulted primarily from differences in the incidence angle of the primary ion beam while changes in the total ion yield are influenced by both the incidence angle and distortion of the electric field by the particle. This study documents that topographic features can influence not only the absolute intensity of ion peaks but can also alter peak ratios in a statistically significant manner. In this light, a greater degree of caution is recommended when interpreting TOF-SIMS images from topographically complex samples.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1914 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2336226 (6 pages) Online Publication Date: 21 August 2006
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A novel surface kinetic model using translating mixed-layer representation was proposed and demonstrated. In this model, a translating mixed layer was constructed where the total number of atoms is conserved as the etching or deposition proceeds, to have a convection or movement flux from or to the substrate volume (the volume under the translating mixed layer) that corresponds to the difference between the adsorption flux and removal flux. The model is demonstrated for silicon etching with chlorine chemistry and silicon oxide etching with fluorine chemistry, with results agreeing well with measured data, as well as with previously developed Monte Carlo simulation results. The computation speed of the translating mixed-layer model was 100–10 000 times faster than that of Monte Carlo simulation.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1857 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2333571 (9 pages) Online Publication Date: 7 August 2006
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Using a combination of etch rate, photoconductance, and deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) measurements, the authors have investigated the use of reactive ion etching (RIE) of dielectrics and Si in CHF3/O2 and CHF3/Ar plasmas for photovoltaic applications. The radio frequency power (rf-power) and gas flow rate dependencies have shown that the addition of either O2 or Ar to CHF3 can be used effectively to change the etch selectivity between SiO2 and Si3N4. The effective carrier lifetime of samples degraded upon exposure to a CHF3-based plasma, reflecting the introduction of recombination centers in the near-surface region. The extent of minority carrier lifetime degradation was similar in both types of plasmas, suggesting that the same defects were responsible for the increased recombination. However, the rf-power dependence of lifetime degradation in n- and p-type Si was different. Moreover, the lifetime degradation did not exhibit a linear rf-power dependence, suggesting that primary defects were not the dominant recombination centers responsible for the decrease in lifetime. Indeed, DLTS measurements have shown that secondary defects were formed in samples exposed to the plasma after annealing at 400 °C, the temperature at which a SiN:H layer is deposited on samples to passivate their surfaces. The minority carrier lifetime degradation in RIE processed samples could be partially avoided using post-RIE chemical treatments.
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Angular distribution of particles sputtered from Si bottom in a CHF3 plasma J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1807 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2221323 (5 pages) Online Publication Date: 3 August 2006
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The angular distribution (AD) of particles sputtered from a Si substrate in a CHF3 plasma at bias voltages between −200 and −400 V was investigated using a specially designed experimental setup for controlling the angle of incident ions on the substrate. Particles were sputtered from a primary target substrate, which was placed in a Faraday cage and on the horizontal cathode plane of a plasma etcher, by bombardment with ions incident in a direction normal to the substrate. The sputtered particles were redeposited on the surfaces of SiO2 secondary targets, which were fixed in small pieces at different positions on the convave surface of a circular sample holder, which was positioned above the primary target. A line connecting the primary and secondary targets defined the sputtering angle of the etch products. The redeposition rate was estimated from the difference in the thickness of the secondary target in two independent experiments, with and without the primary target. The redeposition rate was plotted as a function of sputtering angle and, the AD was then obtained from the plot. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis of a Si primary target subjected to etching indicated that a steady-state CFx film with a thickness of about 50 Å was formed on the Si at a bias voltage of −400 V. This film was thicker than the ion-energy transfer depth (30 Å), and, as a result, it can be concluded that particles redeposited on the secondary target were sputtered from a steady-state CFx film that had been formed on the Si primary target. The AD of particles sputtered from the Si primary target showed an over-cosine dependence on the sputtering angle (θ), corresponding to cos3–4 θ, and the power of the over-cosine dependence increased with bias voltage. The characteristic changes in the AD support the view that particles contributing to the redeposition were generated largely by physical sputtering rather than by ion-enhanced chemical etching.
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Metal–organic interface and charge injection in organic electronic devices J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 21, 521 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1559919 (11 pages) Online Publication Date: 18 March 2003
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Charge injection at the interface between metallic electrodes and organic semiconductors plays a crucial role in the performance of organic (opto-)electronic devices. This article discusses the current understanding of the formation of the metal–organic contact and the parameters which control the injection current. Organic semiconductors differ significantly from their inorganic counterparts, primarily because they are amorphous van der Waals solids. As a result the electronic states are highly localized, and charge transport is by site-to-site hopping. Organics can also form clean interfaces with many metals, free of interface states in the gap. Nevertheless, there is generally found to be a significant vacuum level offset, the origins of which are not yet fully understood. Organic semiconductors are frequently free of donor and acceptor dopants, and as a result the depletion depth is larger than the organic layer thickness. Thus the Fermi level in the organic and the charge injection barriers depend most directly on the interface offset. The charge injection process is described as thermally assisted tunneling from the delocalized states of the metal into the localized states of the semiconductor, whose energy includes contributions from the mean barrier height, the image potential, the energetic disorder, and the applied electric field. There is no completely satisfactory analytic theory for the field and temperature dependence of the injection current, which, for well characterized interfaces, exhibits behavior relating to both thermionic emission and field-induced tunneling. © 2003 American Vacuum Society. |
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Development of novel tungsten-doped high mobility transparent conductive In2O3 thin films J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1866 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2333572 (4 pages) Online Publication Date: 7 August 2006
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A novel high mobility transparent conductive oxide thin film, tungsten-doped indium oxide (IWO), has been successfully grown on conventional glass substrates by reactive direct current magnetron sputtering technique from a metallic target. Analyses of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and x-ray diffraction reveal that tetravalent and hexavalent tungsten ions substitute for trivalent host indium ions without changing the crystalline structure of In2O3. IWO thin films were grown with resistivity of 4.4×10−4 Ω cm, carrier mobility of 52.8 cm2 V−1 S−1; transmittance exceeding 80% at wavelengths between 380 and 900 nm, and average roughness of 7.5 nm.
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