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Top 20 Most Read Articles
March 2007
The 20 articles with the most full-text downloads during the month, in descending order.
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Application of porcelain enamel as an ultra-high-vacuum-compatible electrical insulator J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 18, 1751 (2000); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.582418 (4 pages)
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Many accelerator vacuum system components require electrical insulation internal to the vacuum system. Some accelerator components at Brookhaven National Laboratory are installed in ultra-high-vacuum systems which require the insulation to have excellent vacuum characteristics, be radiation resistant, and be able to withstand high temperatures when used on baked systems. Porcelain enamel satisfies all these requirements. This article describes the process and application of coating metal parts with porcelain enamel to provide electrical insulation. The mechanical and vacuum testing of Marman flanges coated with porcelain and using metal Helicoflex seals to form a zero-length electrical break are detailed. The use of porcelain enameled parts is attractive since it can be done quickly, is inexpensive and environmentally safe, and most of all satisfies stringent vacuum system requirements. © 2000 American Vacuum Society. |
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Metal–organic interface and charge injection in organic electronic devices J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 21, 521 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1559919 (11 pages) Online Publication Date: 18 March 2003
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Charge injection at the interface between metallic electrodes and organic semiconductors plays a crucial role in the performance of organic (opto-)electronic devices. This article discusses the current understanding of the formation of the metal–organic contact and the parameters which control the injection current. Organic semiconductors differ significantly from their inorganic counterparts, primarily because they are amorphous van der Waals solids. As a result the electronic states are highly localized, and charge transport is by site-to-site hopping. Organics can also form clean interfaces with many metals, free of interface states in the gap. Nevertheless, there is generally found to be a significant vacuum level offset, the origins of which are not yet fully understood. Organic semiconductors are frequently free of donor and acceptor dopants, and as a result the depletion depth is larger than the organic layer thickness. Thus the Fermi level in the organic and the charge injection barriers depend most directly on the interface offset. The charge injection process is described as thermally assisted tunneling from the delocalized states of the metal into the localized states of the semiconductor, whose energy includes contributions from the mean barrier height, the image potential, the energetic disorder, and the applied electric field. There is no completely satisfactory analytic theory for the field and temperature dependence of the injection current, which, for well characterized interfaces, exhibits behavior relating to both thermionic emission and field-induced tunneling. © 2003 American Vacuum Society. |
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Nanosphere lithography: A materials general fabrication process for periodic particle array surfaces J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 13, 1553 (1995); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.579726 (6 pages)
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In this article nanosphere lithography (NSL) is demonstrated to be a materials general fabrication process for the production of periodic particle array (PPA) surfaces having nanometer scale features. A variety of PPA surfaces have been prepared using identical single‐layer (SL) and double‐layer (DL) NSL masks made by self‐assembly of polymer nanospheres with diameter, D=264 nm, and varying both the substrate material S and the particle material M. In the examples shown here, S was an insulator, semiconductor, or metal and M was a metal, inorganic ionic insulator, or an organic π‐electron semiconductor. PPA structural characterization and determination of nanoparticle metrics was accomplished with atomic force microscopy. This is the first demonstration of nanometer scale PPA surfaces formed from molecular materials. © 1995 American Vacuum Society |
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 411 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2712196 (4 pages) Online Publication Date: 7 March 2007
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A thin passivation layer of aluminum oxide was deposited on polyimide by using the combined plasma immersion ion implantation and deposition (PIII&D) and cathodic vacuum arc technique. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy C 1s spectra showed that the carbonyl bond (CO) and ether group (C–O–C and C–N–C) presented in pristine polyimide were damaged by implantation of aluminum ions and deposition of an aluminum oxide passivation layer. O 1s and Al 2p spectra confirmed the formation of a thin aluminum oxide passivation layer. This passivation layer can be implemented in aerospace engineering where polyimide may suffer degradation from fast atomic oxygen in the low-earth-orbit environment. To test the protection of this passivation layer to energetic oxygen ions, a plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition system was used to simulate the oxygen-ion irradiation, and the results showed that a higher weight occurred for passivated samples compared to pristine ones. X-ray diffraction showed that Al peaks were presented on the surface region, but no aluminum oxide peak was detected. The authors then concluded that Al clusters were formed in polyimide besides aluminum oxide, which was in an x-ray amorphous state. Furthermore, contact-angle measurements showed a reduced contact angle for passivated polyimide from a pristine value of 78° to 20° by using deionized water. Several discussions have been made on the surface chemical and structural property changes by using the combined PIII&D and cathodic vacuum arc technique.
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Dry etching of polydimethylsiloxane for microfluidic systems J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 20, 975 (2002); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1460896 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 7 May 2002
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A fluorine-based reactive ion etch (RIE) process has been developed to anisotropically dry etch the silicone elastomer polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). This technique complements the standard molding procedure that makes use of forms made of thick SU-8 photoresist to produce features in the PDMS. Total gas pressure and the ratio of O2 to CF4 were varied to optimize etch rate. The RIE recipe developed in this study uses a 1:3 mixture of O2 to CF4 gas resulting in a highly directional and stable etch rate of approximately 20 μm per hour. Selective dry etching can be performed through a photolithographically patterned metal etch mask providing greater precision and alignment with preexisting molded features. The dry etch process is presented in this article along with a brief comparison to recently reported wet etch approaches. © 2002 American Vacuum Society. |
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Reduction of thin oxidized copper films using a hot-filament hydrogen radical source J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 415 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2712197 (6 pages) Online Publication Date: 7 March 2007
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This article aims to provide practical information on the performance of a hot-filament radical source, with which it becomes feasible for metallization in ultralarge-scale integrated circuits, which has not been studied in detail thus far. A very simple arrangement using this technique allows the highly efficient generation of hydrogen radicals and a quick recovery of oxidized Cu surfaces to their original metallic state. The amount of CuO reduction was evaluated by measuring sheet resistance and also by transmission microscopy. The reduction started when the specimen temperature exceeded 100 °C, and several tens of nanometers Cu of film was formed without resulting in a serious increase in the specimen temperature. The amount of reduction was found to increase almost proportionately to the hydrogen radical flux. The Cu layer had a very flat surface topography showing no trace of self-agglomeration of Cu. The reduction of a thermally oxidized Cu specimen was also demonstrated.
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Module to guide the expert use of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy by corrosion scientists J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 1 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2406058 (27 pages) Online Publication Date: 29 December 2006
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This contribution, to the potential development of data systems having some degree of “expert” character for use in x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), illustrates the manner in which models of “Rules” might be developed by the user community. The field of corrosion science is taken as an example of one community of researchers who make regular use of XPS for well defined needs. These “needs” are redefined as a series of Goals that have to be reached in order to characterize the surface in terms of layer sequences and the enrichment of given elements within them. Rules are written to allow a structured approach to achieve each Goal. A feature of this set of Rules is that they are designed expressly to allow automated interpretation of the survey scan. This approach is facilitated by the use of a recommendation that the survey spectrum be acquired as a series of accumulated scans instead of the usual approach of making a single scan through the spectrum. Repeat scans enable the information extracted by the operation of the Rules to be processed and displayed for information during the period that is normally used for the survey scan. It is intended that this information will inform the setting up of any subsequent high resolution scans and their interactive interpretation. It will also inform any future operations such as ion etching or angle-resolved measurements. In some cases, the information made available may be all that is required by the user and in this case the “expert module” approach becomes particularly cost effective. The operation of the rules is illustrated throughout by an examination of data obtained for passivated stainless steel, giving a data set of measurements, typical of those made by corrosion scientists, that can be compared with the literature values obtained by more conventional XPS interpretation.
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The microstructure of sputter‐deposited coatings J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 4, 3059 (1986); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.573628 (7 pages)
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Microstructure is a critical consideration when polycrystalline or amorphous thin films are used for applications such as microcircuit metallization layers and diffusion barriers. The trend in device fabrication toward lower processing temperatures means that such coatings must often be deposited at substrate temperatures T that are low relative to the coating material melting point Tm. The structure of vapor deposited coatings grown under these conditions consists typically of a columnar growth structure, defined by voided open boundaries, which is superimposed on a microstructure which may be polycrystalline (defined by metallurgical grain boundaries) or amorphous. The voided growth structure is clearly undesirable for most applications. Its occurrence is a fundamental consequence of atomic shadowing acting in concert with the low adatom mobilities that characterize low T/Tm deposition, and its formation can be enhanced by the surface irregularities which are common to microcircuit fabrication. This paper reviews some of the recent developments in understanding the fundamental aspects of the relationship between the deposition conditions and the microstructure of sputter‐deposited thin films, with particular emphasis on the origin of the growth structure and its suppression through energetic particle bombardment. |
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Plasma deposition of optical films and coatings: A review J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 18, 2619 (2000); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1314395 (27 pages)
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Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is being increasingly used for the fabrication of transparent dielectric optical films and coatings. This involves single-layer, multilayer, graded index, and nanocomposite optical thin film systems for applications such as optical filters, antireflective coatings, optical waveguides, and others. Beside their basic optical properties (refractive index, extinction coefficient, optical loss), these systems very frequently offer other desirable “functional” characteristics. These include hardness, scratch, abrasion, and erosion resistance, improved adhesion to various technologically important substrate materials such as polymers, hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity, long-term chemical, thermal, and environmental stability, gas and vapor impermeability, and others. In the present article, we critically review the advances in the development of plasma processes and plasma systems for the synthesis of thin film high and low index optical materials, and in the control of plasma–surface interactions leading to desired film microstructures. We particularly underline those specificities of PECVD, which distinguish it from other conventional techniques for producing optical films (mainly physical vapor deposition), such as fabrication of graded index (inhomogeneous) layers, control of interfaces, high deposition rate at low temperature, enhanced mechanical and other functional characteristics, and industrial scaleup. Advances in this field are illustrated by selected examples of PECVD of antireflective coatings, rugate filters, integrated optical devices, and others. © 2000 American Vacuum Society. |
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On the electrochemical etching of tips for scanning tunneling microscopy J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 8, 3570 (1990); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.576509 (6 pages)
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The sharpness of tips used in scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is one factor which affects the resolution of the STM image. In this paper, we report on a direct‐current (dc) drop‐off electrochemical etching procedure used to sharpen tips for STM. The shape of the tip is dependent on the meniscus which surrounds the wire at the air–electrolyte interface. The sharpness of the tip is related to the tensile strength of the wire and how quickly the electrochemical reaction can be stopped once the wire breaks. We have found that the cutoff time of the etch circuit has a significant effect on the radius of curvature and cone angle of the etched tip; i.e., the faster the cutoff time, the sharper the tip. We have constructed an etching circuit with a minimum cut‐off time of 500 ns which uses two fast metal–oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFET) and a high‐speed comparator. The radius of curvature of the tips can be varied from approximately 20 to greater than 300 nm by increasing the cutoff time of the circuit. |
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Layer-by-layer etching of GaAs (110) with halogenation and pulsed-laser irradiation J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 16, 490 (1998); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.581048 (4 pages)
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We have investigated the effect of laser irradiation on the terrace morphology of Br-covered GaAs (110). Layer-by-layer etching of GaAs (110) is demonstrated through laser-induced etching and atomic desorption. Nanosecond pulsed-laser irradiation (hν=2.3 eV, pulse power ∼35 mJ cm−2) of Br–GaAs (110) initially produces a high density of small, single-layer etch pits as Br is consumed. Continued laser irradiation causes Ga and As desorption from pit edges so that pits grow and thereby remove the remnant of the top GaAs layer. When there is Br on the surface, pit growth reflects the Br chemisorption structure (elongated along [001]) but subsequent atom desorption favors growth along [11̄0]. © 1998 American Vacuum Society. |
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24, 1197 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2167077 (6 pages) Online Publication Date: 21 June 2006
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Ultrathin coatings of fluorosilane films for silicon and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) nanochannels are desirable to control the hydrophobicity of the surface and reduce or prevent undesired protein adsorption or cell interactions critical for the performance of most biomedical micro/nanodevices. Surface modifications using vapor-phase deposition become increasingly important for some biomedical nanodevices and have advantages over liquid-phase deposition since the vapor phase can permeate more efficiently into silicon nanochannels. In this study, vapor-phase deposition was used to deposit ultrathin films of four fluorosilanes on silicon and PDMS and identify deposition conditions for an optimal process. The films were characterized by means of a contact angle analyzer for hydrophobicity, an ellipsometer for film thickness, and an atomic force microscope for surface roughness of these films. Results of this study and relevant mechanisms are the subject of this article.
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Revised structure zone model for thin film physical structure J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 2, 500 (1984); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.572604 (4 pages)
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Thin films prepared under conditions of low adatom mobility are characterized by a highly anisotropic physical structure with a wide range of systematically varying column and void sizes. The structure zone models, previously developed to classify the larger sized physical structures, are revised to account for the evolutionary growth stages of structure development as well as the separate effects of thermal‐ and bombardment‐induced mobility. The zone T introduced by Thornton is shown to be a subzone within zone 1. |
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High-power pulsed sputtering using a magnetron with enhanced plasma confinement J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 42 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2388954 (6 pages) Online Publication Date: 29 December 2006
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High-power pulsed dc magnetron discharges for ionized high-rate sputtering of metallic films were systematically investigated. The depositions were performed using two unbalanced circular magnetrons of different types with a directly water-cooled planar copper target of 100 mm in diameter. The repetition frequency was 1 kHz at a fixed 20% duty cycle and an argon pressure of 0.5 Pa. Time evolutions of the discharge characteristics were measured to provide information on absorption of energy in the discharge plasma and on transfer of arising ions to the substrate at a target power density in a pulse up to 950 W/cm2. Time-averaged mass spectroscopy was performed at the substrate position to characterize ion energy distributions and composition of total ion fluxes onto the substrate. The deposition rate of the copper films formed on a floating substrate at the distance of 100 mm from the target was 2.2 μm/min at an average target power density over a pulse period of 96 W/cm2. Very effective ionization of sputtered copper atoms resulted in a strong predominance of copper ions (up to 92%) in total ion fluxes onto the substrate. Trends in measured values of the deposition rate per average target power density and the ionized fraction of sputtered copper atoms in the flux onto the substrate (up to 56%) were explained on the basis of model predictions.
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Phase-change characteristics of chalcogenide Ge1Se1Te2 thin films for use in nonvolatile memories J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 48 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2388956 (6 pages) Online Publication Date: 29 December 2006
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In the present work, the authors show that Ge1Se1Te2 thin films provide a promising alternative for phase-change random access memory (PRAM) applications to overcome the problems of conventional Ge2Sb2Te5 PRAM devices. 100‐nm-thick chalcogenide Ge1Se1Te2 thin films were prepared by evaporating a stoichiometric bulk target, and Ge1Se1Te2 thin-film PRAM devices with a 20‐μm-sized memory cell have been fabricated. The devices exhibited a successful switching between an amorphous and a crystalline phase by applying a 50 ns, 7.3 V set pulse and a 30 ns, 7.4 V reset pulse with a switching dynamic range (the ratio of Rhigh to Rlow) as high as 103. For a static-mode switching operation, two different resistance states in Ge1Se1Te2 thin films have been observed at low voltages, depending on the two different crystalline states of the film. The first phase-transition temperature of Ge1Se1Te2 thin film is found to be 110 °C, which is clearly lower than that of Ge2Sb2Te5 films from the temperature-dependent conductivity measurements. From field emission scanning electron microscope and x-ray diffraction analyses, the authors confirmed that phase-change properties of Ge1Se1Te2 materials are closely related to the structure of the amorphous state and crystalline state.
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On the interest of carbon-coated plasma reactor for advanced gate stack etching processes J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 290 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2464126 (14 pages) Online Publication Date: 20 February 2007
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In integrated circuit fabrication the most wide spread strategy to achieve acceptable wafer-to-wafer reproducibility of the gate stack etching process is to dry-clean the plasma reactor walls between each wafer processed. However, inherent exposure of the reactor walls to fluorine-based plasma leads to formation and accumulation of nonvolatile fluoride residues (such as AlFx) on reactor wall surfaces, which in turn leads to process drifts and metallic contamination of wafers. To prevent this while keeping an Al2O3 reactor wall material, a coating strategy must be used, in which the reactor is coated by a protective layer between wafers. It was shown recently that deposition of carbon-rich coating on the reactor walls allows improvements of process reproducibility and reactor wall protection. The authors show that this strategy results in a higher ion-to-neutral flux ratio to the wafer when compared to other strategies (clean or SiOClx-coated reactors) because the carbon walls load reactive radical densities while keeping the same ion current. As a result, the etching rates are generally smaller in a carbon-coated reactor, but a highly anisotropic etching profile can be achieved in silicon and metal gates, whose etching is strongly ion assisted. Furthermore, thanks to the low density of Cl atoms in the carbon-coated reactor, silicon etching can be achieved almost without sidewall passivation layers, allowing fine critical dimension control to be achieved. In addition, it is shown that although the O atom density is also smaller in the carbon-coated reactor, the selectivity toward ultrathin gate oxides is not reduced dramatically. Furthermore, during metal gate etching over high-k dielectric, the low level of parasitic oxygen in the carbon-coated reactor also allows one to minimize bulk silicon reoxidation through HfO2 high-k gate dielectric. It is then shown that the BCl3 etching process of the HfO2 high-k material is highly selective toward the substrate in the carbon-coated reactor, and the carbon-coating strategy thus allows minimizing the silicon recess of the active area of transistors. The authors eventually demonstrate that the carbon-coating strategy drastically reduces on-wafer metallic contamination. Finally, the consumption of carbon from the reactor during the etching process is discussed (and thus the amount of initial deposit that is required to protect the reactor walls) together with the best way of cleaning the reactor after a silicon etching process.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 21, S207 (2003); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1600446 (9 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 September 2003
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In this the 50th anniversary year of the AVS and the AVS Symposium, this article is offered as one in a series of topical review articles to celebrate the role of this community to the progress in nanofabrication technology. The emphasis of the article is on the principles and limits of the various pattern formation techniques which have emerged as important tools in the research of nanoscale devices and structures. Topics such as e-beam lithography, proximal probes, imprint lithography, self assembly, and directed assembly are all discussed. © 2003 American Vacuum Society. |
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Fabrication of layered self-standing diamond film by dc arc plasma jet chemical vapor deposition J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, L1 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2409940 (3 pages) Online Publication Date: 4 January 2007
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Layered self-standing diamond films, consisting of an upper layer, buffer layer, and a lower layer, were fabricated by fluctuating the ratio of methane to hydrogen in high power dc arc plasma jet chemical vapor deposition. There were micrometer-sized columnar diamond crystalline grains in both upper layer and lower layer. The size of the columnar diamond crystalline grains was bigger in the upper layer than that in the lower layer. The orientation of the upper layer was (110), while it was (111) for the lower layer. Raman results showed that no sp3 peak shift was found in the upper layer, but it was found and blueshifted in the lower layer. This indicated that the internal stress within the film body could be tailored by this layered structure. The buffer layer with nanometer-sized diamond grains formed by secondary nucleation was necessary in order to form the layered film. Growth rate was over 10 μm/h in layered self-standing diamond film fabrication.
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Electron and ion kinetics in magnetized capacitively coupled plasma source J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 455 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2713408 (9 pages) Online Publication Date: 21 March 2007
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One-dimensional particle-in-cell Monte Carlo collision simulations of magnetized argon plasmas in an asymmetric capacitively coupled plasma reactor are presented. At low pressure (10 mTorr), electron kinetics are strongly affected by the magnetic field and transitions from nonlocal to local kinetic property occur with increasing magnetic field which are reflected in spatially resolved calculations of the electron-energy probability function. For high-energy electrons, the transition takes place when the energy-relaxation length is smaller than the system length. For low-energy electrons, however, the transition occurs when the electron-diffusion time scale in the energy space is shorter than the spatial-diffusion time scale in coordinate space. These observations are in agreement with experimental data and theoretical calculations deduced from the Boltzmann equation. The ion energy distribution function (IEDF) on the driven electrode changes from the ion-neutral collisional type to the ion-neutral collisionless type with increasing magnetic field strength. The maximum ion energy in the IEDF decreases and the angular spread in the ion angle distribution function slightly increases with increasing magnetic field strength. These changes are explained in terms of the ratio of the ion-transit time to rf frequency, the sheath length, and the mean potential difference between the driven electrode and the plasma. At high pressure (218 mTorr), electron-neutral collisions disrupt electron gyromotion so that the effects of the magnetic field on electron and ion kinetics are greatly reduced.
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J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 25, 421 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2712193 (4 pages) Online Publication Date: 9 March 2007
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Through discrete modulation of the deposition biasing conditions, multilayered nonhydrogenated diamondlike amorphous carbon films were prepared by the filtered cathodic vacuum arc technique. Films deposited under different conditions were divided into two groups in order to study how the modulation as well as sublayer content affect various mechanical and material properties as deposited and after annealing in vacuum. A 30% decrease in the residual stress of the multilayer films from 4.3 to 2.8 GPa was observed with only marginal (5%) changes in the hardness. The frictional characteristics of the multilayer films were also studied and shown to be excellent, having a coefficient of friction of 0.1 and stable with annealing. A larger decrease in the resistance to wear was observed in multilayer films richer in soft sublayers which was linked to the decreased in sp3 content in the films.
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